Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (2025)

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Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (1)[...]). M.ENV. SCI.

A thesis submitted in fulfilment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy

Prehistoric and Historic Archaeology
University of Sydney
December 1999

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (2)[...]thesis has taken over six years during which much of my
work has been undertaken on weekends and in da[...]her help in getting me a job at the NSW Heritage
Office, has encouraged me throughout the duration of my work by reading and
discussing my work. Sam Mc[...]a good and
supportive fi'iend in the last throes of the writing up.

My supervisors at the University of Sydney, Judy Birmingham, Roland Fletcher
(Prehist[...]ance. Special thanks for services beyond the call of
duty go to Dr Aedeen Cremin and Dr Sarah Colley who read most of the second draft
and were extremely helpful in ma[...]nd Sarah had been very encouraging and supportive
of my work as well as helping with my caffeine addic[...]hanks to my colleagues and fellow students at the University of Sydney: Steph
Moser, Pim Alison, Tracy Ireland, P[...]Carlyle Greenwall Bequest to support my work. The
University kindly allowed me to use an airless, windowless office under the Library.

I would also like to tha[...]Meg Stuart, assisted with constructing a database of
conditional purchase records and bought me a replacement computer.

State Records of NSW has kindly granted permission to publish thei[...]eries. Emily Hanna and her staff at the Kingswood Office
for their cheerful demeanour in assis[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (3)[...]the dc Salis diaries held
at the National Library of Australia. I would like to thank the staff of the manuscripts
section of the National Library of Australia for their assistance and for installing[...]rts they have collected on Lanyon.

In the course of my research I have been fortunate to receive the assistance of the
following people: Terry Kass, Grace Karskans,[...]Nigel Prickett, Neville Ritchie, and Mark Brown. Of
course, Skerrick was her usual helpful self and provided hours of diversion.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (4)[...]ies the cultural landscape concept to the history of squatting (sheep
and cattle farming on Crown Land outside the limits of location) in South Eastern
Australia to revisit the question of squatting and the land question in Australia. Using
the techniques of historical archaeology as applied to cultural lan[...]and the landscape.

Afler reviewing the history of the cultural landscape concept, the thesis proceeds
along two lines of inquiry. Firstly, it discusses the history of squatting at the broad
level seeking to understan[...]cted until 1911). Lanyon is studied as an example of pioneering and
establishing squatting runs. Cuppacumbalong is studies as an example of maintaining
the squatting run over a period of time against broad processes such as economic
fl[...]d to late 18005 selection movement.

The overview of the history of squatting (Chapters 3 & 4) argues that while the main
driving force of squatting was the economics of the wool industry which in collision
with the Colonial Government’s land policy produced the phenomena of wholesale
illegal occupation of Crown Land across much of South-Eastem Australia. The
settlement pattern created was driven by the occupation of grassy plains suitable for
sheep farming. However[...]s structures and landscapes that were expressions of their
respectability. This respectability aided them in their struggle for security and
conversion of squatting runs into secure leasehold. This securi[...]ate to State but shared a general idealistic view of the
economies of small farming and ignorance of the environment.

Selection pitted the squatter and selector in a conflict to attain the same ideals of
respectability and domesticity often on the same piece of land. This explains the
often-ambiguous attitude of the squatter at times bitterly opposing selection[...]seeking accommodation with selectors. The nature of the conflict between
squatter and selector was m[...]s and regulations and
this gives rise to the form of the cultural landscape in many areas.

Research into Lanyon resulted in a substantial review of the established view of
Lanyon as a landscape of “captive labour” to one where evidence of coercion in the
landscape does not exist. The owner of Lanyon at the time James Wright is shown to
have[...]self on his squatting run at Cuppacumbalong (part of the Lanyon
estate).

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (5)[...]to the de Salis family in 1855. Detailed analysis
of the squatter/selector conflict is undertaken using the Conditional purchase records,
the diary of George de Salis and the landscape itself. This shows how the patriarch of
the family, the Hon Leopold Fane de Salis (MLC), husbanded his estate to create a
freehold estate out of the squatting run. This was done by a mixture of using family
and dummies to select important areas of the estate (the flats) which gave the family
control of the most economically valuable parts ofof the various Crown Land Acts
(which he as an MP wa[...]o
“improve” the land. This involved erections of residences (huts), fencing and clearing.
From the conditional purchase records, it is clear that the bulk of the improvements
went into ring barking and clearing the land. Thus the creation of squatting landscape
in this case was a complex interaction of the desires of the dc Salis’s to maintain their
estate, the desires of selectors to create small farms, the Lands Acts a[...]oth the broad process that shaped the development of squatting and the individual
responses to the pro[...]om historical
cliches and to paint a rich picture of Australian history.
Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (6)vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS II
ABSTRACT Iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS VI

CHAPTER 1: THE SQUATTERS AND THE AUS[...]USTRALIA 101850: PIONEERING
AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SQUATTOCRACY 34
Introduction 35

A pre[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (7)Introduction of sheep to Australia
Australian flocks
Development of the Australian wool industry

Expansion to the limits of location
West of the Blue Mountains
South West from Sydney
Hunter Valley
The Limits of Location

The Squatting Occupation ofof Victoria
The sanctioning of squatting

The 18405 Struggle and Strife
The Depression of 1841
The struggle against Governor Gipps
The Consolidation of squatting

Who were the Squatters?

Capital
Chara[...]ts
Selection in Victoria
The success or otherwise of selection

The Pastoral Economy

39
39
41[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (8)The 18905 Depression and the end of squatting

Conclusion

viii

129

130

CHAPTER[...], CUPPACUMBALONG

AND THE CANBERRA REGION

Choice of the study area
Suitability of the study area
Overview of runs in the area

Environment
Geology
Climate

So[...]Buildings, Structures and Landscape

A landscape of captive labour?
Boundaries
Land uses and activities
Patterns of spatial organisation
Responses to the natu[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (9)[...]Introduction
The de Salis family
Brief overview of runs held by de Salis
Loss of the estate

The de Salis Runs
Run Boundaries over[...]undary Demarcations
Circulation Networks
Patterns of Spatial Organisation

Defending the run/creating the Estate
Exercising the Pre—Emptive Right
The village of Tharwa
“A spiteful neighbour”
The de Salis selection strategy
De Salis dummies
Analysis of Conditional Purchase Series
Peacocking
Improvemen[...]t: 1 Barnes Creek
Catchment 2: Murrumbidgee North of Tharwa
Catchment 3: Sawyers Gully
Catchment 4: Gu[...]r —West Bank
Catchment 5: the Long Gully, south of Murrumbidgee

Catchment 6: Reedy Creek

Catchment 7: Catchments West of the Murrumbidgee

191

192
194
195
196[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (10)Catchment 8

Catchment 9: East Side of the Gudgenby River and Naas River.
Gray’s serie[...]: Naas Flat

Catchment 13: Coolemon
The Treachery of the Campbells

Conclusion: Husbanding the de Salis Estate

CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSION -THE LAND OF THE GOLDEN FLEECE

Introduction
Pioneering
From s[...]E" IDEA
APPENDIX Two: RESPECTABILITY AND THE CULT OF DOMESTICITY

APPENDIX THREE: THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE AT LANYON AND
QUEANBEYAN[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (11)[...]ains are a distinguishing feature in the interior of New South
Wales... The silence and solitude that[...]sed to
enable any one to form a proper conception of them; no traces of the
works of man are here to be met with, except perhaps the ashes of a fire
on the banks of some river. ...nothing meets the eye of the traveller, with
the exception of a few solitary Emus, to enliven the monotony of the
dreary expanse. From the contemplation of this vacancy and solitude the
mind recoils with w[...]herds,
and enlivened by the presence and industry of civilised man.”

James Atkinson 1826

INTRODUCT[...]ies. These people, termed “squatters” because of their method of
land holdingz, formed the first wave of post-convict settlement beyond the
Cumberland Pla[...]icence reluctantly issued by the Crown, held
most of South-Eastem Australia. No doubt this form of title was intended to act in the
normal legal sense of giving a non-exclusive permission to occupy Crown[...]ng runs3 could be bought and sold.

In the decade of the 18405, the squatters vigorously campaigned to[...]s on the land. This point marked the entrenchment of the squatters in the
physical, political and soci[...]to settle.
Squatting runs physically took up much of the landscape ofof NSW and later the Victorian Legislature through p[...]for electors, which disenfranchised the majority of the population. In social circles,
the squatters[...]he squatters occupied the land without permission of the Crown, the presumed owner.
3 In this t[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (12)Following the gold rushes of the early 1850s, the land question emerged as one of the
major political and social issues in Australia. The basic problem was that the increase
of population in Australia caused by a huge immigration of gold diggers raised the
question of where they might settle once the gold fields dec[...]quatter’s holdings and encourage
the settlement of small farmers on the land to create a class of “yeoman farmers”.
These small farmers were known as selectors and held land on a form of time
payment from the Crown. Free Selection was t[...]ere a political
power in the Legislative Councils of Parliament and had by this time become a de
facto[...]sphere where, through Parliament, representatives of each view argued
over the various pieces of land legislation and their administration. The se[...]egal and financial power
and considerable powers of tenacity, to try to create or maintain farms and landed
estates. In the process, many of the squatter’s runs became freehold lands altho[...]ters. Matters were not helped by the introduction of the
rabbit from the 18605, massive and prolonged[...]in the marginal areas in the semi-arid west,
much of which is still held on lease.

The position of the squatters as pioneers was celebrated in vario[...]s Franklin and
Steele Rudd all explore dimensions of squatting and selecting.

It is with Stephen Roberts’s work that serious historical discussion of squatting
begins. A History of Land Settlement in Australia (1924) which outline[...]ng Age in Australia (1935) which was an outgrowth of this
earlier research, presented a romanticised view of squatting (cited as Roberts 1968 &
1974 respectiv[...]nt
studies as the first serious historical study of squatting. Billis and Kenyon wrote a
more romanticised history of squatting in Victoria with Pastures New (1930) and
produced a summary history of squatting runs and squatters for Victoria in Pastoral
Pioneers of Port Phillip (1932), still the standard reference[...]b). As well, Phillip Brown began his
lengthy task of publishing all the correspondence from the Clyde[...]ng
Victorian pastoral company, with the Narrative of George Russell in 1935 followed
by the Cly[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (13)Beginning in the 19505 a number of studies of squatting and related subjects began to
be published. Most notable was Margaret Kiddle’s Men of Yesterday (1962) a social
history of Western District squatters to whom Kiddle was rel[...]s a decided
move away from the simple biographies of squatters and squatting families such as
were pub[...]ray
(1968). Kiddle’s work on the social history of squatting was never explicitly followed
up, but s[...]ion in Bathurst (1993).

Studies on the economics of the wool industry stimulated by Noel Butlin’s w[...]here was
considerable discussion on the economics of the wool industry4 (rather than squatting)
by aut[...]ll Ker (1961, 1962).
However with the publication of Abbott’s The Pastoral Age in 1971 debate and
re[...]much under-rated research theme was the question of land utilisation and
government policy, which alt[...]Powell then moved
his interests into the question of land utilisation and environmental history (1975)[...]Powell and Hancock established the research theme of

human impact on the environment, now popular wit[...]all it can be said that although no local history of South-Eastem Australia
(outside the original 19 counties of New South Wales) can be said to be complete
without a mention of squatting, selecting and the land debate, these t[...]history more to their taste. This
means that many of the new modes of historical discourse have not been applied to
the history of squatting. That history has therefore remained co[...]ich seem rather to have stalled.

Yet, the ghosts of squatting stalk the fields of contemporary Australian society. When
politicians[...]ime Minister) and Alexander Downer
(former Leader of the Opposition) are dismissed as “squatters”,[...]the squatter speaks for privilege and the status of a ruling class.

4 There was also a line of research into the origins of the merino and sheep in general.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (14)[...]es about Aboriginal land rights there is the echo of
previous attempts to change the nature of pastoral holdings to reduce the squatters
power. Furthermore the current system of rural land tenure emerged from the land
debates of the nineteenth century.

TAKING A LANDSCAPE APPRO[...]scape analysis
aims to understand:

0 the process of firstly transforming the Aboriginal cultural landscape into
the squatting landscape.

0 the transformation of the squatter into the squattocracy.

0 And to see[...]was played out on the
landscape.

In the process of undertaking this study, it is also hoped to reunite some of the
separate strands of squatting research. Land policy for example was not just some
abstract notion. It was underpinned by notions of social and economic status that had
a direct interaction with the landscape of South-Eastem Australia. The policy can be
underst[...]be related back to the land debates and contexts of social and
economic status.

While some of the information used in this thesis, particularly[...]on a broad stage where they are seen in a variety
of roles: as pioneering heroes, as rampant capitalis[...]“Whig view” and the “Black Armband view” of the past to flourish.

On the other hand landsca[...]rly well situated in social and economic contexts of
the time. Discussions of particular landscapes often ignore the context in[...]. In particular, there seems little understanding of how land legislation acted to
control the shape of a landscape and of the contexts in which the legislation was
developed and applied. The lack of context in studies of individual landscapes allows

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (15)[...]aking a landscape approach forces the examination of abstract notions such as
“squatters as rampant capitalists” in the context of actual physical evidence, the
cultural landscapes[...]a broader context for a

particular manifestation of squatting behaviour such as taking up a piece of land rather
than focus on an individual squatter’s behaviour.

The potential of landscape research for the study of squatting was noted in the first
major statement[...]evealed in settlement
pattern is a promising area of study” (1983112). Despite this call historical[...]g in Australia has been limited to the early work
of Connah in New England (1977, 1983 and Connah et a[...]ks by Cannon on woolsheds in the
Western Division of NSW (1992) and Woodhouse on Holowiliena Station (1993).
This paucity of work is attributable to the disciplinary focus on[...]on landscape it should be noted that the research of
Joe Powell, a historical geographer with an obvio[...]kground, is
important for documenting the working of the land laws in Victoria (1970, 1973). His
work was followed by that of Ray Wright on the workings of the Victoria Lands
Department (1989). Both Powell and Wright focus on the workings of the land laws
and the individuals involved and de[...]ortant in providing an understanding the workings of the land law in

Victoria and it is puzzling that[...]squatting this thesis is not only
addressing one of the oldest research themes in the study of Australia’s past, but it is
also trying to deve[...]cal
evidence (1'. e. the squatters’ landscapes) of the past to speak as strongly about the past
as the documentary evidence. This does not mean that one line of evidence is to have
priority over another but that all lines of evidence are to be considered.

The approach to t[...]pproach” which aims to look at material aspects
of squatting as forming a cultural landscape (see Ch[...]pproach rather than the more traditional
approach of excavation is that there seemed to be no compelli[...]uld be solved solely by excavation. The formation of a squatting run
and the development of architecture and spatial arrangements rela[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (16)[...]dence is abundantly available because large areas of South-Eastem
Australia remain as sheep and cattle runs retaining evidence of the squatting era. In
Western Victoria for example there are a number of runs that retain evidence of the
original squatting settlement and subsequent[...]y collide and
gives full reign to the exploration of research in many fields. The rationale for taking
this approach is to use the detailed study of the landscape to anchor the abstract
notions of squatting to overcome the problems with previous[...]es are used as an organising tool to set a series of
issues that the research in the thesis will addre[...]discussed below.

Pioneering

The general spirit of the histories written about squatting particularly of the early
squatters is of heroic times. “The brave pioneers hewing a farm out of the bush” myth.
The challenge in researching sq[...]inal
cultural landscape, which after various acts of dispersion was claimed as the squatter’s
own. The study of Aboriginal/squatter relations has been the subject of a number of
historical studies including Milliss’ magisteri[...]79). We are also fortunate in having the journals of George Augustus
Robinson, Protector of Aborigines in Victoria, in a published form which[...]5 This claim is based on the authors experience of over fifteen years of archaeological fieldwork in
South—Easte[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (17)[...]considered decision that involved
considerations of the environment, economics, government policy, an[...]ally acknowledged). How long the
pioneering phase of squatting persisted and what effect on the landscape the
pioneering phase of settlement had, are two important questions to be developed.

Before the beginning of squatting expansion, farming in South-Eastem Aust[...]. This suited both the need for
food and the mode of production — namely the use of convict labour. The expansion
into sheep and cattle grazing required a more dispersed form of settlement and either a
“free” workforce or a new form of relations between the convict and his overseer an[...]resumably, these changes also required a new form of settlement or
adaptation of existing settlement patterns in the landscape.

F[...]e established squattocracy is about the
processes of gaining and maintaining possession of land as well as gaining and
maintaining social status. This process is epitomised in the transformation of the
squatter (a word that even today remains slig[...]racy but also denies
that meaning by the coupling of squatter.6

How did the squatters rise from very[...]Kenyon for example emphasised the good character of the squatters in terms
reminiscent of Samuel Smiles’s Self Help. Earnest Scott saw their rise as a natural
consequence of the absence of a land policy (1927). Roberts pointed to the irresistible
economic force of the successful wool industry which once having ga[...]nning Clark argued that squatting was the product of British emigrants who
aspired to the life of the landed Gentry and moved into the seemingly unoccupied
interior in search of land that could make their fortunes (see 1973:85-[...]ll saw squatting as being driven by the economics of the pastoral interest but
that the actual settlement pattern derived from a three way dialectic between official
land policy, popular practice in the fiel[...]972)

° I am not sure whether this is an example of Australia’s cultural cringe (true aristo[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (18)were much more focused on the details of the squatters and selectors and on the
question of the success or otherwise of selection.

In my view the answers already provid[...]tocracy and maintaining that position in the face of
selection was as much a social as an economic tra[...]e term
improvement was used to describe a raising of ones social and economic condition. In
other words, there was a link between the social and moral concept of improvement
and the material expression of improvement in the form of goods and landscapes.

The essential element in the establishment of squatters was respectability, which
allowed squat[...]s now “improved land”, populated by “men” of “good
character”. The official argument for giving squatters some form of right to purchase
land was expressed in terms of the land being a force for social and moral
improvement. The squatting landscape was an integral part of this social
transformation, a point overlooked by[...]on political and
economic factors.

The evidence of respectability is expressed through adherence to the Victorian era cult
of domesticity. The material evidence for this is ob[...]spatial
scales. Notably, there is the expression of respectability through various etiquette
performances at social events. Manner of dress and speech are other signs of
respectability. These can be considered as occurring at a personal scale.

There is also the broader aspect of how a person lives their life, particularly their[...]In Mansfield Park Jane Austen paints the picture of a family
lead morally astray by the lack of a firm grip by the head of the household and this is
expressed in part throu[...]he living fence
was more than an inherited symbol of wealth status and enlightenment. Caleb Kirk
and other gentleman farmers firmly believed that the appearance of a farm fence
indicated the virtue of the farmer who constructed it” (1984:352). Thus[...]nce was a symbol referring to the moral qualities of the owner. An unkempt fence

clearly reflected the moral qualities of the owner (see also the discussion in Davidoff
and Hall 1987:370-375).

Thus at the scale of the landscape, the moral values of respectability were felt to have
a physical expression in the homes and estates of people. An unkempt fence or
disorganised estate were symbols of the moral decline or lack of respectability in a
family or individual. Convers[...]dered estate reflected the respectable
qualities of the owner as well as the owner’s affluence.

The notion of improvement was another important value. “Impro[...]dle Ages referring to the profitable cultivation of land. There
was a moral imperative to impr[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (19)[...]by Samuel Smile’s “Self Help”, a catalogue of the virtues of
improvement. Similarly, the notion of improvement was an important aspect of
landscape gardening particularly through the works of Capability Brown and later
Humphrey Repton. In the nineteenth century the notion of improvement covered the
landscapes of the upper class to the middle class and to the colonies, the rendering of
land more profitable by various works, to the notions of moral and spiritual
improvement.7 In particular, Australia was often considered to be greatly in need of
improvement in all areas: spiritually, morally, a[...]l
culture was not considered important, the whole of Australia was considered ripe for
improvement, that is bringing the land into production, the creation of productive
estates as the quotation from James Atkinson at the start of this chapter expresses.
Again, there is a tie into the values of respectability as improvement encompasses the
values of utility, thrift, seriousness, enthusiasm, and so[...]I use the term husbandry to denote the management of an estate and
family. It includes the concept of improvement, for the duty of the head of a family
was to improve both the estate and his a[...]y has an appeal as a term denoting the management of an estate or farm
and a family. The squatter-squa[...]ough taking a
landscape approach to the husbandry of estates. A well husbanded estate was seen to
be a mark of one’s social status. This material link between[...]is important in understanding the transformation of the squatter to the
squattocracy and in the squattocracy’s maintenance of their position in the face of
selection.

From the above discussion, the link b[...]uatting landscape and the moral
and social status of the squatter should be clear. Furthermore it was[...]eded to husband the run as well. Thus, the making of a
squatter was intertwined with the making of a squatting landscape.

Selecting

Ironically, respectability and related Victorian values of domesticity were also used to
conjure the vision of the yeoman farmer productively established on his[...]e on the
land and improve it as well. This vision of domesticity was also shared with the
squatter who[...]ction movement they have been
limited by the lack of access to the detailed records of selection, making detailed
study difficult. Sele[...]were largely held in the various Lands Department
Offices until the 19905 when they began to be depos[...]the records were established.
This thesis is one of the first to use these records although it seems[...]onditional Purchase Registers (a brief discussion of these
records is presented in the following chapter).

7 There was also the notion of “improvements" referring to the actual works that contributed to the
“improvement" of a piece of land.
3 As a reading of the many books on visits to colonial Austr[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (20)[...]Victoria, the Western
District has been the focus of Powell’s detailed work, in NSW the Riverina has[...]England (Ferry 1990, 1995, 1996). As
the majority of the historical work that discusses this issue has[...]ndscapes in detail to help understand the process of selection.
In particular the relative strategies of the selector and the squatter can be examined. In[...]imension missing from current historical accounts of selecting.

CONCLUSION

This thesis revisits the theme of squatters and the land question in Australia. It[...]o re-examine squatting but to use the perspective of historical archaeology to
analyse squatting lands[...]hasis in the
analysis is on the use and interplay of historical and landscape data to understand the
p[...]his, it is intended to build up the understanding of the context in which

individual case studies ill[...]research themes can be developed.

The structure of the thesis is as follows. To begin with, the concept of cultural

landscapes and landscape archaeology ar[...]ers looking at squatting on the very broad canvas of South-Eastem
Australia follow this. These chapter[...]ed in creating
squatting landscape in the context of the themes, developing regional trends and
patter[...]anding the
processes that underpin the production of cultural landscapes is important to provide
the context for understanding the individual manifestation of a squatting landscape.

There follow three chapte[...]studies at a local level give
specific examples of the development of squatting landscapes and show how the
broader tre[...]d the landscape.

Lanyon is studied as an example of a pioneering squatting run demonstrating in the
landscape the process of pioneering settlement and the relations be[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (21)13

and his workers. James Wright, the owner of Lanyon is of interest because he was not
really a successfiJl[...]blished squatting run and looks at how the
owners of the run, the de Salis family and in particular th[...]ape.

Finally, the work is concluded by a summary of the three research themes and reviews
the[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (22)INTRODUCTION

In the study of landscapes, the concept of “cultural landscapes” is the primary
proposit[...]scape is held to
be created or formed by a number of human induced processes interacting over time
wit[...]ullied by human interaction. However, the concept of cultural
landscapes has not been a static intelle[...]. Therefore it is
important to review the concept of cultural landscapes and the methodology for

"rea[...]gical landscape as a background to the main focus of this
thesis.

The first and most daunting task i[...]on "culture"). Trying to review the whole corpus of
literature would be the work of a lifetime. This review is therefore going to tak[...]sis. Due to space considerations, the first part of the review is presented as
Appendix One. Appendix[...]came
from and how it developed.

The second part of the review is presented in this Chapter and begins with a brief
review of the use of the landscape concept in archaeology concluding with a
discussion of some specific examples from historical archaeology. This is followed by
a review of the use of the cultural landscape concept in Australia. Fina[...]The review is focused on the disciplinary field of geography, simply because of its
concern with space and landscape. That it cou[...]with Ruskin's
Modem Painters indicates something of the diversity of the topic and the difficulty in
deciding what is[...]close ties across the two disciplines; thus many of the
developments in geographical techniques and u[...]rked in both areas, while the “New
Geography” of the 19605 was enthusiastically embraced by archae[...]raphy and
archaeology therefore share a tradition of common interest in cultural landscapes.

GEOGRAPH[...]LTURAL LANDSCAPE

There has been a long tradition of archaeological involvement in cultural landscape
studies and geography. In British archaeology, the work of Cyril Fox is considered
important in establishing the study of settlement patterns, although his work was
really a series of distribution maps tracing various items of material culture across the

landscape. In his major work on the archaeology of the Cambridge region, these maps
were clas[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (23)16

in terms of culture groups. By comparing the evidence Fox was able to argue that the
geological structure of the Cambridge region was the dominant factor in d[...]settlement. Fox saw that there were primary areas of settlement, which he
considered had been continually settled since the Neolithic, and secondary areas of
settlement which were dependent on a certain level of civilisation being reached
(1923:313-314). Fox went on to develop this approach in his Personality of Britain
(1932) which Carl Sauer saw as a model of geographical writing (Williams,1983:9-
10)

Graha[...]n the Mesolithic in Britain showed the influence of Fox’s
work. Clark defined archaeology as “the study of past distribution of culture-traits in
time and space, and of the factors governing their distribution” (1933).Clark’s thesis
used a mixture of typological analysis and distribution maps (Smith[...]ner that is similar to the morphological analysis of cultural landscapes advocated
by Sauer. Clark’s review of Fox’s Personality of Britain was to some extent quite

critical mainly[...](Clark 1933).

The other important work was that of Willey in the Viru valley, Peru. Although
conceiv[...]research has been associated with Willey’s use of the concept of settlement pattern in
archaeology (e. g.Trigger 1[...]ir arrangement, and to the nature and disposition of other buildings
pertaining to community life. These settlements reflect the natural environment, the
level of technology on which the builders operated, and the various institutions of
social interaction and control, which the culture[...]starting point for the functional interpretation of archaeological cultures”
(1953: 1).

In many wa[...]s work share similar assumptions about the nature of
culture and its relationship with the environment. Willey’s work also fits into the
methodology of Cultural Geography of the time using archaeological rather than
geographical terms. For example, the work of Kniffen on Louisiana house types is
very similar[...]adopted the
morphological approach as well. Part of the similarity is explained by the fact that
both[...]and geography drew on the anthropological theory of the time for
their conceptions of culture. No doubt this is why Carl Sauer was so e[...]rn studies while sometimes operating on the scale of
landscape analysis, are not necessarily landscape[...]e. Trigger, for example,
identified three levels of settlement analysis; the individual structure, the settlement
and settlement distributions, of which only the final level involved the landscap[...]as being “natural”. In contrast, the concept of

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (24)cultural landscape sees the landscape as a patterned result of cultural process
interacting in some way with the natural elements in the landscape.

With the development of the “New Archaeology” in the 19605, archaeologists began
to discard their previous approaches in favour of a positivist or processual approach
based on a sc[...]cational
analysis typified by Renfrew’s review of Locational Analysis in Human Geography
and Models[...]70s there was speculation that
the second edition of Locational Analysis might revolutionise archaeolo[...]tivist position (Green and Haselgrove 1978).

One of the archaeological responses to the new locational geography was to adopt
some of its methodologies. One of the offspring was site catchment analysis. Devise[...]time from the site. Although the concept is full
of assumptions, it at least provides a basis for com[...]ndscape. In one sense, a site catchment is a form of cultural landscape although the
degree to which i[...]ing the late 19605 there was an increasing number of settlement pattern studies,
although there was so[...]sh ‘settlement archaeology” as a sub—field of archaeology (Chang, 1968; Rouse
1967; Trigger 1967). Settlement pattern studies followed Willey’s concept of
settlement pattern and its relationship with the landscape. What did change was the
adoption of the general systems approach, an increased integration of ecological and
environmental data and models and the use of computer based statistics and models
(often called cultural ecology). The most perceptive of these studies is Flannery’s
edited volume The Early Mesoamerican Village (1976) in which the methods of
analysis are carefully discussed and evaluated. As a consequence of the need for
environmental data, more interdiscip[...]ronically,
this was lead by Ian Hodder, co-author of a very positivist work Spatial Analysis in
Archae[...]sly influenced by the new
geography. In a series of books and papers Hodder and his students, notably[...]aches to archaeology generally through the field of cultural studies. This
produced a predictable clash between the mainly American based supporters of

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (25)[...]ective, this debate did not focus on the
question of landscape but on other issues. This was because u[...]pt was not central to archaeology. A good example of the contrast in
focus between human geography and[...]plines there seems to have been little in the way
of cross fertilisation between them.

This View is b[...]y. The irony is that the only detailed discussion of Marxist/Post-modernist
approaches in geography oc[...]aeology (long
considered the theoretical dinosaur of archaeology) rather than in Ian Hodder’s
chapte[...]e Wagstaff 1987).

Interestingly, the definition of landscape in the Collins Dictionary of Archaeology
(Bahn 1992) is “the collection of landforms particular to a region at a particular time”.
Landform is defined as “a configuration of the earth’s surface created by a distinct
erosional or depositional process or set of processes”. There is no listing for cultural
landscape. Clearly the “authorised” version of landscape sees landscape purely in a
geomorphological sense with no involvement of humans at all. Human activity occurs
on landscape[...]ive text.

The general problem seems to be a lack of interest in what is being said on the other
side of the disciplinary fence. Yet human geography and a[...]he post-modem challenge, to move to richer
levels of meanings and interpretations and to deal with the legacy of positivism. But
whereas with the positivist movement of the 1960s at least the archaeologists were
readin[...]ee Gamble 1987:228-229). There is little evidence of a dialogue on areas of mutual
interest. It is to be regretted that Wagne[...]cultural geographers
focus on the social creation of landscapes of more relevance.

A specific field of archaeology called Landscape Archaeology has emer[...]d to be another name for the archaeological study of settlement
patterns with little attempt to go beyond description and limited conceptualisation of
the concept of landscape (e.g.the papers in Reeves-Smyth and Ham[...]en seen by
reviewers as the most advanced example of landscape archaeology (1995). It is

9 The[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (26)certainly a text that reports on a great project, that of understanding the forces that
shaped the Bifemo Valley over time. Barker adopted the research orientation ofof integrating and understanding. The last 500 years[...]nd its
evolution” is exactly the same splitting of the natural and cultural that occurs in most
trad[...]been occupied for 730,000 years yet the processes of human activity are discussed
in two pages, thin d[...]kdrop
providing constraints and opportunities and of course changing, but the emphasis is on
the settl[...]dialectical relations between human acts and acts of nature, made manifest in
the landscape” (Crumle[...]finition is “a heterogenous land area composed
of a cluster of interacting ecosystems that is repeated in simila[...]986:8-1 l) and this seems to be the general usage of the term (see Naveh and
Liberman 1994 who actuall[...]g and
Tangway 1997).

The underlying principal is of course that of the “system” or system theory so beloved
of the processual archaeologists and geographers of the 19603. By adopting this
approach, the landsca[...]ns included
(Ludwig et al. 1997 is a good example of this method). However the actual
involvement of humans, either individually or collectively, is masked by the use of
terms such as “culture” or “human impact” which act to cover up the actual details of
what is thought to have occurred and precludes a detailed understanding. These are, of
course, familiar and long standing criticisms of the systems approach, however
landscape ecologists seem curiously unaware of such criticisms. For example the
book by Naveh an[...]the papers in
Crumley (1994) seem much more aware ofof the ecological paradigm is
ignored as the authors apparently have not discovered one word of doubt about the applicability of the
systems approach to humans.

' Assuming of course the authors had bothered to read an[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (27)20

that Crumley seems to see historical ecology as a way of charting the future course of
“global action” (1994:8) and yet adopts a met[...]approach is not particularly different from that of landscape
archaeology, as a comparison between Barker’s work in the Bifemo valley (1995) and
the work of Crumley and Marquardt (1987) in the Burgundian la[...]taken by Christopher Tilley
in his Phenomenology of Landscape, which is both an approach to landscape analysis
and an analysis of the relationships between populations and the lan[...]thern England (1994). Tilley is well known as one
of the archaeologists arguing for a post-processual[...]d to some degree he
has an equivalent role to one of the new cultural geographers. Tilley is also occupying
similar intellectual territory with his rejection of positivist notions of space and spatial
analysis (1994:8-10). Tilley ar[...]ticular settings
for involvement and the creation of meanings" (1994:11).

Adopting the phenomenological approach of the “humanistic” geographers and
especially Relph’s concept of place Tilley defines the concept of “locales” which are
“places created and kno[...](1994218). Locales occur within a broader context of cultural and natural landscapes.
Tilley wants his usage of the term landscape to refer to “the physical and visual form
of the earth as an environment and as a setting in w[...]eated, reproduced and transformed. The appearance
of a landscape is something that is substantial and capable of being described in terms
of relief, topography... and so on” (1994:25). Til[...]sed to natural features) “draw on the qualities of landscape to
create part of their significance for those who use them, and the perception of the
landscape itself may be fundamentally affected by the very situatedness of these
locales” (1994:26). “A landscape has on[...]nts to the fundamental way naming, or the process of creating places, creates
both localities and landscapes . The act of naming (or place making) transforms the
physical[...]19). The individual can then draw on their stocks of knowledge to give
meaning, assurance and signifi[...]s. “The place acts dialectally to create
people of that place,” by this Tilley seems to mean that[...]As an aside, he also mentions that the experience of these places is unlikely to be
shared and experienced equally and the understanding and use of places can be
controlled and exploited in systems of domination (1994227).

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (28)21

Once places are named then the experience of living creates both individual and social
memorie[...]iliar place becomes bound up in their experiences of similar places.
Moving through a landscape is soc[...]g to a right way to do
things. An obvious example of this is Australian farm gate etiquette, although Tilley
uses the example of Gabbra camel herders. Movement through the landscape involves

drawing on memories of moving through locales and landscapes and applyin[...]fier discussing de Certeau’s (1984) discussion of the art of walking in which de
Certeau drew a detailed analo[...]eech, Tilley defines the path
as the inscription of the pedestrian speech act onto the landscape (1994230). A journey
through a landscape on a path is one of constantly changing the tactile world. To
explain[...]ked about, recounted or inscribed. In the
process of moving, the landscape unfolds to the observer. Places are appreciated as
part of the moving to and away from. “If places are rea[...]each other and through serial movement along axes of paths it follows that an art of
understanding of place movement and landscape must fundamentally be a narrative
involving a presencing of previous experiences in present contexts” (1994[...]illey is explicit about confining his perception of landscape to small-scale
“traditional landscapes” it seems on the basis of historical evidence that similar
processes of naming of locales and linking these with paths (is the social creation of
landscapes) occurs within capitalist societies as a form of humanising the economic
landscape (in fact de Cer[...]n city). Relph decried placelessness as a product of capitalism but he did not
argue that there were no places in capitalist society.

Aspects of Tilley’s approach to moving through the landsca[...]rtant. Cullen is obviously in love with the drama of the city
and aims to encourage the production of exciting urban form. He developed a concept
calle[...]rough a town at a uniform speed, then the scenery of the town is often revealed in a
series of jerks or revelations which add drama to the event[...]ool for investigating the three dimensional space of a landscape.

Tilley's musings on the Welsh lands[...]roach (1998) while Fleming, in the Oxford
Journal of Archaeology (1999) argues that the field data us[...]th views seem to have merit, it is also
a measure of the interest in Tilley’s work that he sh[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (29)[...]r cursed depending on your
view) with an increase of landscape studies based on Geographical Informati[...]rices and thus becoming cheaper to use.
For those of us who can remember the statistics boom in archae[...]publication, GIS threatens the same problem: lack of consideration of
the fundamental principals of the technique. It is a relief to read Llobera’s[...]e landscape approach as Tilley and uses the power of GIS to answer questions
relating to process in th[...]icular Llobera shows how GIS can look at
question of visibility of places and to places also a theme of Tilley’s study. Although
a preliminary study, this is an important paper in demonstrating the potential of GIS in
landscape studies and the care with which[...]applied.

To conclude a rather brief run through of archaeological approaches to landscape, a
split i[...]s later codified under
the rather too broad term of landscape archaeology (see for example the papers[...]ich sees gardens as landscapes, which in the case of
individuals, such as “Capability Brown” or Hu[...]ing as others would
see gardens more in the scale of places within a landscape rather than as landscapes
themselves.

One of the most influential of the more recent archaeological studies of landscape has
been the work of Mark Leone (and his students) on the gardens and city of Annapolis,
U.S.A. (Leone 1987, 1988). Leone's wor[...]re he reviewed various approaches to
the question of recovering mind. Leone is enthusiastic about using materialist (or
Marxist) concepts of ideology and the methods of critical self-reflection to recover
mind. He particularly places this form of analysis in the arena of historical
archaeology as both the present and th[...]deologies.

Leone's later work undertaken as part of the Archaeology in Annapolis Project
developed th[...]case the garden, and society through the concept of ideology.
Ideology (following Althusser) i[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (30)Afier discussing the work of Rhys Isaac to provide a context, Leone argues tha[...]and politics and that it did so
by using concepts of nature (through measurement and classification)[...]cing symbols or referents to
antiquity at the end of some vistas). This served to mask the contradiction of a person,
who was a slave owner, proclaiming his belief in individual liberty. The gist of
Leone’s argument was later expanded to cover co[...](Leone
and Shackel 1990) as well as other aspects of material behaviour (Leone 1988) and in

his most[...]cal approach to landscape that makes Leone's work of interest to
other archaeologists, as well as having obvious parallels to Cosgrove's work on the
history of the landscape concept and on Venice and to Daniel[...]tect Humphrey Repton. Nothing is more symptomatic of the gulf between human
geography and archaeology than having parallel lines of research in each discipline

without apparent (at[...]termined from the published literature)
awareness of each other.

This does not mean that Leone's posi[...]admitted that in this paper
he pushed the concept of ideology to its absolute limit and one might question his use
of Althusser in light of the critique of Althusser’s work by ER Thompson and others.
His[...]oncerned. The papers in the
“landscape issue” of Historical Archaeology vol.23(1) are mainly conce[...]hasn’t historical archaeology been in some
sort of crisis?) because of it’s lack of interest in theory,'2 Orser adopts an approach
called “mutualism” which forms a key of his research program for historical
archaeology. Mutualism focuses on the individual and their web or net of social
relations (1996:21-22, 32-33) rather than abstract notions of “culture” or “society”.
While the abandonment of culture seems not to be such a bad thing, especia[...]per organic view Orser is rejecting, the adoption ofof mutuality”

l2In fact Orser in his discussion of historical archaeology has ignored the use of theory by such leading
figures in the dis[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (31)(1996:137), by this he is referring to the use of the super-organic view of culture
(allegedly by Deetz). In Orser’s view l[...]nstrate his approach Orser analyses the landscape of
Gorttoose in Ireland but curiously what is presen[...]pressed in the landscape,
apart from the building of the odd wall. Thus to a large degree this new app[...]ny new insights.

A recently published collection of essays on historical archaeological landscape
stu[...]ing
symbolic meaning in the landscape and the use of the hermeneutic method in a
“dialogue with the[...]ultural geography (despite supporting the mapping of
cultural traits - very much part of the old school) arguing that both come from a
com[...]19962xv). The papers are a powerful demonstration of the historical
archaeological method that uses bo[...]eology, as in cultural geography, the combination of using informed
reading of documentary evidence and the analysis of landscapes and their elements
seems to be particu[...]to addressing social and cultural interpretations of the
past. The main strength of this approach is the ability to establish the context of both
documentary evidence and landscape evidence[...]and its contexts
to move towards an understanding of the past.

CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDIES IN AUSTRALIA

It is also important in this review to consider the use of the cultural landscape concept
in Australia in order to situate this thesis in the context of such studies. The first use
of the term “cultural landscape” in Australia wa[...]is presidential address to the Geographic Section of the ANZAAS Conference at the
University of Sydney in 1956. Spate, a former student of HO Darby, began by firing
a salvo at the “this[...]short on documentation, he sketched out the theme of the history of Australia’s
cultural landscapes since the arrival of the first fleet (19561177).

The cultural lands[...]the urban. He then invited his audience to think of the pre-contact
landscape as “a continent with no straight lines” (19562178). Then to think of
Australia in the present day (i. e. 1956) with th[...]e points to the widespread and uncompromising use of the grid
in Australia. Similarly the ubiquity of corrugated iron is stressed “it has not only been

perhaps the most prominent feature of the cultural landscape, but also a very ma[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (32)[...]s. Spate notes the individual
“personalities” of the capital cities, Sydney’s brashness; Melboume’s Victorian
exuberance; Adelaide’s dignity and so on. After having a go at the s[...]es the rural settlements rather
than the patterns of rural landscapes created by rural industries. The important
impression of the rural landscape is one of space.

One of the points Spate makes about the cultural landsca[...]landscape (in particular the buildings) in terms of its origin, the genetic
approach. Spate would beg[...]g the “fossils”, noting “there is much
more of archaeological interest in Australia than we often think” (1956: l 81), an early
appreciation of historical archaeology. “In any case, since temporal and spatial
variations go hand in hand, the study of settlement patterns is essential to an
understanding both of Australian geography and of Australian history” (19562183)

Spate’s view of the cultural landscape seems particularly grounded in the notion of
cultural landscapes as a settlement pattern. For example in his discussion of
precontract and 1956 landscapes he emphasises two[...]a as Human Setting (Rapoport 1972). Rose’s view
of what a cultural landscape might be was similar to[...]tural groups and culture without much
explanation of their meaning. Rose’s analysis was morphologica[...]uropean” when he claimed the volcanic
explosion of European energies during a brief two centuries of time “has swept aside,
ignored or obliterated the features of earliest human settlement in this land” (1972:59—
60).

An influential case study of an Australian landscape was George Seddon’s Swan River
Landscapes (1970). Seddon advocated the cause of conserving not only the bush but
also the cultura[...]landscapes,
which have been modified by the hand of man and divided them into transformational
and Ac[...]transformational landscapes are where the “hand of man” is
evident, Acadian is where it is conceal[...]ithin each division. Despite the evocative nature of the text and illustrations Seddon
was operating in the mode of morphological analysis and clearly had a super—organic
view of culture.

Calder in “Beyond the View”, which attempted to introduce the technical components
of landscape analysis to the general public, defined[...]and assessed by
investigation and by measurement of its component parts; at the other extreme it
focu[...]ed, although their relationships to other details of the area under investigation

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (33)[...]s
(Jeans 1984) seem content to avoid the question of what a historical landscape might
be in favour of excellent description and photography.

This adoption of the morphological approach is not surprising given the obvious
influence of the works of Sauer and Hoskins. The uncritical adoption of the
morphological view of cultural landscapes is evident in most of the Australian
literature on the subject. Despite some periods of debate on the concept of cultural
landscapes, there has been little discussion on its theoretical underpinning.

The contribution of the CSIRO’s Division of Land Research should not be overlooked
in this discussion. By the late 19505 they had derived the concept of land systems
which was a method of integrating a board range of environmental factors into units
of land systems that shared important characteristics. A land system unit did not stop
at the surface of the earth but included the underlying geology and[...]s the
climate above (see Christian 1958). Studies of land capability and land-use notably
those undert[...]is Jeans and historian Ian Jack, all based at the
University of Sydney. The collaboration was developed in the context of the
archaeology department’s refusal to teach h[...]These books were very much guides to the
remains of specific industries and based on the concept of “occupance” introduced by
Jeans. “Occupance[...]rises not only the production plant but the range of artefacts needed to support it.
Any centre of specialist industry presupposes a complete landscape of artefacts
organised to support that industry” (Birmingham. Jeans and Jack 197928).

One of the great disappointments of these works is that having got an interdisciplina[...]echnological history aspect rather than landscape of occupance.

Two more substantive studies o[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (34)27

undertook research in the Lanyon-Lambrigg area of the Australian Capital Territory

( 1987a, 1987b)[...]s work focuses on the assessment and preservation of cultural
landscapes which he sees as rural landscapes. There was however little discussion of
what a cultural landscape was, Russell by default, adopting the view of authors such
as Melnick which ultimately means he uncritically adopts the morphological approach
of the American cultural geographers. Ironically, in a subsequent article, Russell
advocates the role of cultural landscapes in “accessing the richness of culture’s past”

(1993237) however such an approach remains limited by Russell’s conception of the
landscape.

Taylor’s work combined both ind[...]s as well as practical work on
landscapes as part of a team. Taylor drew upon the work on identifying[...]1984 see also 1987). Although written in the form of a
manual for recording landscapes, rather than as[...]w on the standard cultural geographer’s concept of a landscape (see
Melnick 1987). Taylor was also influenced by Menig’s Interpretation of Ordinary
Landscapes in particular the papers of Lewis and Menig as well as Menig’s
assessment of the works of Hoskins and J. B. Jackson (Menig’s work is disc[...], the Australian Heritage Commission ran a series of seminars on issues to do
with identifying and reg[...]erated by the seminars15 lead to the organisation of a conference on cultural
landscapes by ICOMOS Aus[...], it seems that there was a remarkable uniformity
of definition concerning what cultural landscapes were and how to preserve them.
This reflects the influence of the previous seminars and the understandably utilitarian
approach of heritage practitioners in adopting the available methodology of Melnick
(see Armstrong and Truscott 1989; Blair a[...]ublished which
both advocate the similar concepts of landscape although the actual definition of the
concept is not pursued in depth (McCann 1993,[...]little attempt to go beyond the surface recording of landscape
morphology and look at the landscape in[...]s at work. All this is rather ironic, as the work of landscape recording
is occurring in the context of the social and political struggle to get signific[...]n at this time was McConville‘s landscape study of the Berry
Deep Leads in Central Victoria which was intended as a demonstration of how to study a landscape. He
presented his study to a seminar at the National Trust of Victoria. McConville took the View that
landscape[...]e mainly interesting in their detailed discussion of individual landscapes or items within the

landsc[...]n apparently interested in broadening the concept of landscape
(Stuart 1997).

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (35)[...]in Nga Uruoa (1995) presents a similar discussion of landscape,
ecology, and history for New Zealand,[...]tanding past landscapes.

To summarise, the study of cultural landscapes in Australia has uncritically adopted
the morphological approach of Sauer and Hoskins, in particular as filtered through the
work of Melnick on rural landscape assessment for the US National Parks Service.
The lack of critical awareness has not resulted in any partic[...]rphological approach is suitable for the purposes of heritage management.
However as has been argued e[...]approach needs to be taken.

Returning to the aim of the thesis, that of understanding squatting landscapes, the
review of cultural landscape studies suggests that adoption of a purely morphological
approach is entirely practical, in that surviving elements of the squatting landscape
could be identified and recorded. Indeed some of this work has been done for example
by Cannon (19[...]an (1980, 1982). However, if deeper understanding of the
squatting and squatting landscapes is the aim[...]urface evidence rather than revealing the process of change over time.

Approaches to understanding ch[...]ne. These approaches offer a deeper understanding of landscape through
consideration of social and cultural factors and processes such as[...]n and adopt a broadly hermeneutic method as a
way of reaching a deeper understanding and interpretation of the landscape. In a
sense, they aim to focus on b[...]ing this view as providing
a deeper understanding of the past.

There is no right methodology for landscape studies - only a choice of alternatives
which can be best used as part of an hermeneutic approach to landscapes, in which
each altemative is used to give a differing perspective of the central issue. This is not
to say that anythi[...]early if one is aiming for a deeper understanding of the
past, then there is a need for usual tools of landscape analysis such as identification,
descr[...]' an important need to understand how the methods of landscape analysis
structure and control the resu[...]ic one. The aim is to examine
the research themes of “pioneering”. “from squatter to squattocrac[...]help form the landscape
and the broad environment of South-Eastem Australia can be examined. Specific
analysis ofof a pioneering
squatting landscape and the t[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (36)[...]r husbanding
his run and dealing with the process of selection on the run. These case studies aim to[...]pe at
the local level.

METHODOLOGY

The analysis of landscapes used in the case studies has been undertaken by adapting
the methodology of Keller and Keller (1987), Melnick (1984, 1987) and McClelland
et a1. (1990) to the demands of the research project. The three works are compati[...]ogy, although orientated
towards the requirements of the US. National Parks Service, is a useful metho[...]ion about a landscape. It is based on the concept
of landscape characteristics which are "tangible evidence of the activities and habits

of the people who occupied, developed, used, and sha[...]s are
identified and recorded as a static record of the cultural landscape. The way to change
this st[...]eristics and
the landscape wholistically in terms of the research themes outlined earlier. A
processua[...]ndertake this by moulding the discussion in
terms of a testable hypothesis which the evaluation of these landscape characteristics
could test. This[...]uld only work if the characteristics were capable of only
simple causal relationships and indeed this[...]tools or faunal studies where the characteristics of the material studied is governed by
simple physic[...]t is rich in
explanation and interpretation, many of which may be simultaneously true. Thus
while some form of verification can be made by testing the logic of the line of
argument or the evidential support for the argume[...]into a dense
contextual layer so that the reading of the landscape characteristics can be undertaken
w[...]ructed or developed. From an archaeological point of view, this exploits the
advantage of having the historical record as well as the archaeological record so that
some understanding of why landscape characteristics were created[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (37)[...]d both the research issues and the practicalities of data
collection. It is also important to consider where the use of the criteria are leading the
analysis, as inevitably adopting a set of criteria emphasises one line of analysis at the
expense of others. Making this choice has to be an overt dec[...]se have been modified by removing the categories of
archaeological sites and small scale elements. Ar[...]egory at best and so was discarded.

The category of Gardens has been added, as gardens seemed separate from the
broader characteristic of vegetation relating to land use. Gardens used not[...]e characteristics to be “read” in the context of the research questions are therefore:

1) Land Uses and Activities.

2) Patterns of Spatial Organisation.

3) Responses to the Natura[...]eading” Process
The first stage in the process of investigating a landscape under the Melnick
methodology, is one of establishing the landscape to be studied and its[...]over time. Landscapes are defined by a multitude of boundaries: political, economic,
social, natural.[...]he start. Importantly, the

relative permeability of each boundary needs to be evaluated. In the context of
squatting, the bounded unit of analysis is the squatter’s run. These were lega[...]landscapes. Archaeological sites are in fact part of that landscape.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (38)31

defined entities but of course runs are added or separated so that the ru[...]runs were administered by the
Government, records of squatting runs for NSW were largely destroyed in[...]n Palace fire.18 The fire destroyed the records of the “Occupation branch" of the
Mines Department, which at that time administ[...]848 to 1882. Personal records and company records of
individual squatters can make up part of this gap.

Most of the underlying historical research to support Cha[...]al purchase records are held by the State Records Office (formerly the
Archive Office of NSW). The series consists of Conditional Purchase Registers,
Lands Department[...]Registers
and Correspondence files.

Each piece of correspondence is listed in the Conditional Purch[...]pondence Registers. In order to trace the history of a piece
of land, the conditional purchase number was obtaine[...]map
or from the applicant’s index in the front of the Conditional Purchase Register. The
entry in t[...]ence numbers were recorded, and
then the sequence of correspondence was searched through the Correspon[...]ut often they do not list file numbers. A degree of intuition
and guesswork was required to obtain th[...]The conditional purchase records for the Parishes of Tharwa, Cuppacumbalong,
Murray, Coolemon, Orroral, Naas and parts of Boroombah and Yarara were searched.
Some 421 reco[...]ten summary in MS-Word. Photocopies and printouts of the
summary and search notes were filed in lever[...]activities mostly on Cuppacumbalong. A
microfilm of the diary is held in the National Library of Australia. Diary entries from
1869 - 1882[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (39)There is no substitute for field walking as a way of recording information about a
landscape and to ge[...]le
stage so that during documentary research some of the inevitable ambiguities of the
documentary record can be identified and resolved. Later I developed the habit of
driving to Melbourne through the study area, whic[...]for
how the landscape was and to build up a kind of empathy for the landscape. More
systematic surveys were undertaken with the aim of identifying and recording the
landscape character[...]ecific
items such as hut sites.

The description of landforrn, soils, vegetation has been systematise[...]ough
somewhat complex, is at least a valuable way ofof course important, not only to record specific fe[...]research. The actual process is to take a number of “readings” of the landscape using
the Melnick characteristics as a way of consistently recording or interpreting each
landscape. Using the combination of landscape characteristics and situating them in
time allowed a chronological reading of the landscape in which transformations from
one landscape to another are seen. The understanding of these changes can be related
to the ever-increasi[...]ical research
undertaken. Thus, the understanding of the landscape gets “thicker” in the Geertzian
sense, as more lines of evidence are examined.

CONCLUSION

“Cultural l[...]has remained largely unchallenged. '9 The concept of cultural
landscapes has proven to be of long lasting usefulness in helping researchers
un[...]Two broad analytical frameworks for the analysis of landscape
are currently in use.

The morphological analysis of cultural landscapes has proved useful in identify[...]ural" and “cultural"
landscapes. In the context of Australia which has at least 50,000+ years of human history and
interaction with the environmen[...]as there has not been a “natural"
(in the sense of untouched by humans) landscape for at leas[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (40)non-trivial manner) of these items and features. The result has been a listing of
“cultural traits” such as vernacular houses,[...]t attempts at
explanation have been limited. Part of the underlying reason for this difficulty has
been the adoption of the ‘super-organic’ view of culture. While in more recent studies
the super-o[...]systems theory, these ofien have the same effect of obscuring the effects of social and
political elements in creating the lan[...]ogical analysis to achieve a deeper understanding of past landscapes.
These approaches have focused on[...]contexts. There is also an approach that
explains of the impact of the physical landscape and how it is constructed[...]terms to further political and economic
positions of various groups in society. It is these approaches that promise ultimately to
allow a deeper understanding of squatting landscapes by moving beyond the static
morphological approach to a more dynamic view of the cultural landscape. A broadly
hermeneu[...]
Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (41)[...]TRALIA TO 1850: PIONEERING AND THE

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SQUATTOCRACY

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (42)35

“So silently one by one, men of great force and endurance, with the sun
and the s[...]on (1930)

INTRODUCTION

This chapter, the first of two giving a broad context for squatting landscap[...]ia, looks at the processes behind the development of squatting from its origins
in the 18205 to the 18505 by which time most of the grasslands in South-Eastem
Australia had been[...]rown. This
was the “classic” pioneering phase of squatting typified by the quotation at the top of
the page from one of the early historians of squatting.

The chapter is structured to give a b[...]themes. The
chapter begins with a brief overview of farming in NSW and Tasmania and a
discussion of the emergence of the wool industry as an important industry in
Australia. The expansion of farming to the limits of location is outlined and the role of
the limits in Colonial land policy is established[...]n beyond the
limits is delineated, as is the role of squatting in forcing the Government to legalise
settlement beyond the limits. The two great struggles of the 18405: to survive the
depression, and to obta[...]ally, the narrative section
considers the process of consolidation during the 18405.

The chapter then[...]d
moved down existing drainage lines by a process of leap-frogging and in-filling.
Pioneering squatte[...]imal impact on the landscape.
However, this phase of pioneering was short lived for, despite their lack of tenure,
squatters quickly invested in such items[...]olsheds and improved
housing. A detailed analysis of the development of one run is used to demonstrate that
squatters als[...]lish their respectability through the development
of comfortable huts and neat gardens.

Working at a[...]apter brings together material from various
lines of research. These are often treated by dividing them into areas of separate
research (politics, land law, geography, history of sheep, economic history,
environmental history) w[...]ey all form important

parts in the understanding of the processes underlying the formation of squatting
landscapes.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (43)[...]lands using convicts as well as
building up herds of animals to provide fresh meat. The emphasis on es[...]rprising as Botany Bay was a long way from points of
resupply such as England or India and the Cape of Good Hope.

Not surprisingly, the lack of skilled agriculturalists, poor tools and total lack of
knowledge about Port Jackson’s environment mean[...]mpts
were unsuccessful. After the initial failure of the first crop in 1788, agriculture was
moved to[...]ernment farming
developed until it reached a peak of 1,014 acres in 1792 (Fletcher 1976:27). At the
sa[...]d “sowed the first
grain”.2" The development of private farming marked a change in govermrlent
at[...]ing former soldiers and convicts to obtain grants of land as freehold.
This policy has been described as a spur of the moment decision that was aimed at
solving the problem of what to do with the convicts once their time had expired
(Butlin l969:3). Apparently, the return of the convicts to Britain was not seen as an

optio[...]rants in 1790. However, the
number and experience of free settlers, who began arriving in 1793, was po[...]1976: 16). Settlement remained close to the towns of Parramatta and Sydney,
as Governor Phillip was concerned about the obvious disadvantages of granting land
to form a wide, dispersed settlement across the Cumberland Plain.

In 1794, settlement of the Hawkesbury River was allowed by the acting Go[...]from the river. However despite the disadvantage
of flood, Fletcher notes “the Hawkesbury quickly[...]g
centre, so superior were its resources to those of any other known part” (19761195).
Settlement also expanded along the shores of Sydney Harbour and the Parramatta
River as well as in areas such as Prospect and Castle Hill. Most of the land granted

was in comparatively small allotments (Fletcher suggests a common size of 30 to 50
acres, 1976254).

Shortly after Phillip’s departure in 1792, permission was received for the Officers and
men of NSW Corps23 to receive land grants along with civilian officials. The first

20 Identical instructions we[...]tions to

Governor Phillip, in Historical Records of Australia (HRA) 1(1):11-l3

Zl Epitaph on[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (44)37

grants were made to the Officers of the Corps. From 1793, through illicit trading
act[...]ited having access to foreign exchange, positions
of trust in the colony which they could exploit for profit, and access to numerous
convict servants, the Officers were a major economic power (Fletcher 1976:62-63).
Apart from their trading activities, the Officer class were prominent farmers holding
between 30% and 17% of land cropped between 1793 and 1802. Afier about[...]cern with their trading activities and the growth of civilian
merchants such as Robert Campbell and em[...]ing industry) resulted in the
comparative decline of the Officer's economic power in the Colony.

The history of livestock breeding in Australia begins with the arrival of stock with the
First Fleet, although there is no record of how many beasts actually survived the
voyage. By[...]n fact,
showing unusual bovine intelligence, most of the cattle had abandoned their convict
herdsman by mid-1788 and settled on pastures beyond the reach of the colony.
Governor Hunter stumbled on a herd of some 60 cattle beyond the Nepean River, at
an are[...]uss or financial outlay. Fletcher notes that the Officers of the NSW Corps began to

concentrate on cattle and[...]out 1800 onwards (Fletcher
1976:70).

The purpose of developing the livestock was of course to provide fresh meat to the
colony and sa[...]arket). The Governors were also
importing numbers of livestock from the Cape and India. Even so there[...]y pigs, goats, milk cows, and so on - the numbers of
stock would have been quite small. To run large h[...]must have seemed a little more respectable to the Officers and Gentry than farming
with all its implications of dirt and sweaty labour and close associati[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (45)[...]rland Plain (after Jeans 1972)

The broad pattern of settlement during this period can be characterise[...]ur. The
small farms were spread along the courses of the rivers where fertile soil could be
found. There were a few larger farms, which were mixed grazing of cattle and some
sheep and cultivation. These larg[...]e up to
3000 acres. Larger estates included those of Marsden at Marnre, Jamison at
Regentville, Cox at[...]and at Luddenham as well as the well known
estate of John Macarthur’s at Camden, formerly the Cowpastures (see Perry 1963:22-
25). A 3000 acre farm is still of such a size that it can be walked across and
admi[...]eturning each night. This seems to be the pattern of grazing, although as Blair and

Claoue-Long note[...]n poorly documented (1993bz83) so
precise details of the actual landscapes are unknown.24

The expansion of pastoral estates however soon ran into the physical constraints of the
Cumberland Plains. This plain lies to the west of Sydney Cove and is bounded on all
sides by terrai[...]country

24 There have been no published studies of early convict farms from this period although evidence of
farming does exist at Parramatta Park.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (46)[...]he settlement as it ran virtually around the edge of the
Cumberland Plain.

INTRODUCTION OF SHEEP TO AUSTRALIA

Generally, there are two uses[...]meat the other is to provide
wool. The conversion of wool into fabric involves the production of yarn by twisting
the wool fibres and the weaving or knitting of the yarn into a fabric. There are two
main processes of producing yarn - woollen or worsted. The woollen[...]cks

From the Australian perspective, the history of sheep can conveniently begin in
eighteenth centur[...]ol to the British woollen industry.
By the middle of the eighteenth century, the fine wool industry w[...]fine wool carrying sheep with a suitable amount of mutton on it. By the late 17005,
the British woollen industry obtained much of its fine wool from overseas countries
such as Sp[...]sh breeding program based on merinos smuggled out of Spain and
supported by George 111. Sir Joseph Ban[...]the Reliance and the Supply were sent to the Cape of Good Hope to buy
supplies for Sydney. The ships masters, Captain Waterhouse of Supply and Captain
Kent of Reliance were offered merinos from the flock of the late Governor, Colonel
Gordon, whose widow wa[...]rn to Britain. These merinos were
the descendants of those given to the Dutch Governor by the King of Spain in 1789
(Ryder 1983:575). Waterhouse and Ke[...]are that this is a rather superficial discussion of Bank’s role as a scientist, see Gascoign[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (47)en-route to Sydney but 10 of Waterhouse's survived. These were distributed wit[...]16/07/1806 in Carter
1979:457-458).

The history of sheep breeding in early Australia is rather confu[...]ed with the argument about who was the "father“ of the Australian wool
industry. Various candidates[...]e alternatively praised or dismissed on the basis of some rather
fragmentary historical evidence about the nature and quality of their sheep. The basic
point is that the Australian sheep of that time came from a variety of sources including
the merinos that Waterhouse had[...]n 1805, merinos apparently
captured off the coast of Peru around 1804, merinos that accompanied the Bl[...]For example, Marsden, the chaplain to the Colony of New South Wales, crossed his
merinos with sheep from the Cape of Good Hope and India with the aim of producing
dual-purpose meat/wool sheep adapted to[...]Australian merino type. From the evident success of some Australian wool in the
English market it appears that the introduction of fine wool genes via the merino was
successfully[...]1962).

It is not precisely clear how the concept of a market for wool rather than for mutton
develope[...]Sir Joseph Banks to learn
about the requirements of the English market and how they could improve the[...]ould have been fulfilling the evangelical ideals
of improvement and industry in his activity.

Tasman[...]ember 1855,
was colonised in 1803 as an off-shoot of NSW with the aim of preventing any French
ambitions in the Southern O[...]e in mutton prices (Hartwell 1954:110). An import of quality sheep occurred

26 . .
Hence Vandiemanoman.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (48)41

in 1820 with the arrival of 181 sheep, again from Macarthur’s flock. The G[...]in
Tasmania grew rapidly. Cox has noted that one of the unique features of the early Van
Dieman’s Land wool industry was t[...]sing Saxon stock (Cox 1936:20—28).

Development of the Australian wool industry

Abbot’s “The Pastoral Age: A re—examination” (1971) is the culmination of the
historical debate on the nature of the early wool industry conducted between various[...]in the 1960s. Abbott neatly avoided the question of “the Father"
and points to a variety of factors that made grazing and sheep farming of interest to
landowners. Although small samples of wool had been sent to England, it was really
the combination of declining meat prices in NSW between 1816 and 1819, and the
extraordinary profits of speculative wool cargoes sent to England in 1811-12 that
spurred the development of wool production (Abbott 1971 :34-35). The initial[...]Yarwood 1977:133-134). As the traditional sources of wool for the
English market, Spain, and Saxony, were in the midst of the Napoleonic wars, supply
disruptions may have[...]und 1817 (Abbott 1971:38-39).

Once the shortages of the wars were over, more attention was paid to the quality of
the fleeces in the mills and prices dropped exce[...]tion to Australia on the quality and
presentation of the fleeces. Abbott argued that from 1818 onward[...]he
costs involved in the production and marketing of wool in London” (1971 :41). The
graziers in the[...]stry as a useful answer to the perennial question of what
to do with the convicts once their sentences had expired. Even so, in 1821 wool
remained a small part of the English market and a small part of Australia’s exports.

There was also increased English interest in the potential of Australia as a source for
wool. The most notable expressions of this were the establishment of the Australian
Agricultural Company and the Van D[...]English market and each were reliant on promises of cheap convict labour and large
land grants from a[...].

27 This was an inquiry into the administration of the Colony conducted in 1819-1820.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (49)[...]. The Australian Agricultural company had capital of
£1,000, 000 and was entitled to grants of land up to 1,000,000 acres (Bairstow
1986288). The Van Dieman’s Land Company received grants of 500,000 acres in
north-west Tasmania (Murray 1988:101). Both companies competed for the supply of
breeding sheep. The Australian Agricultural Compa[...]ived its charter in
1824, became a major importer of Saxon rams from 1824. Between 1825 and 1827
some[...]h Wales was well equipped
with increasing quality of flocks, new pastures being opened up and a good[...]:47). This view was
supported by the publication of Commissioner Bigge’s reports in London in 1822-23
in which the advantages of the wool industry in New South Wales was stressed.

EXPANSION TO THE LIMITS OF LOCATION

When Governor Brisbane arrived in 1821,[...]ettlement in NSW had
reached a minor crisis. Most of the available freehold land in NSW (the Cumberlan[...]grant from the Governor and there was a shortage of land
for grazing. Brisbane attempted to improve t[...]by increasing land
prices28 but due to a shortage of surveyors” Brisbane was forced to continue
Governor Macquarie’s practice of issuing “tickets of occupation” which allowed
occupation of land prior to sale (Abbott 1971:128-130; Perry 19[...]The land shortage was rectified by the expansion of the settlement
beyond the Cumberland Plain.

West of the Blue Mountains

Settlement had reached across the Blue Mountains following the successful
explorations of Blaxland, Lawson, and Wentworth (1813) and survey of Evans (1813-
14) which had established the presence of forest land beyond the rugged terrain of the
Blue Mountains. Governor Macquarie authorised the construction of a road across the
Mountains in 1814. In April 181[...]ife crossed the Mountains and
arrived at the site of Bathurst, which they named and set out. A small s[...]ale cultivation began. At the same time, a
number of settlers took flocks over the mountains on a sem[...]es that by 1820 there were some 19,453 sheep west of the Blue Mountains
(1963284).

28 A quit rent was[...]anted and there always was a considerable backlog of land
waiting to be surveyed.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (50)[...].... ”'Wbmry/oul

Figure 3.2 Settlement west of the Blue Mountains (afier Perry 1963)

The sudden influx of settlement over the mountains forced the Aborigin[...]invaders. From 1822, the Wiradjuri began a series of attacks on
sheep flocks and shepherds. Fry reports a series of attacks resulting in some 20
hutkeepers and sheph[...](1993233). It is
difficult to assess the nature of these attacks as the settlers tended to exaggerat[...]ibed by Perry as the principal sheep raising area of
the colony in the 18205 (1963:88). Cultivation of land was only for local production
largely because of the difficult road over the mountains and consequent high transport
costs (both in terms of time and money) to take produce to Sydney for sal[...]analysed by Perry shows that there were two types of farm:

small farms run by ex-convicts and[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (51)The area to the south west of Sydney was known as the “Cow Pastures" and was[...]herd to build up. John Macarthur
received a grant of land in the Cow pastures in 1804 to encourage his[...]from the mid-18205.

The evidence for the nature of settlement in this area is complicated, as the co[...]Census
retums. Perry notes the general similarity of the settlement size with other districts but
note[...]ck on Crown Land. There was also a
greater number of cattle which were more suited to the land around[...]In the 1820!

Figure 3.3 Exploring South West of Sydney (afier Andrews 1999)

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (52)[...]allis’s Plains from 1812 (to the immediate west of
Newcastle along the Hunter River). These were located at the lower end of the Hunter
Valley, which was characterised by the meandering course of the river and numerous
swamps and dense rainfores[...]vement east up the Hunter
River. The middle tract of the Hunter was reached by explorers moving overla[...]und there were first occupied and, by 1825, much of the plains had
been granted to settlers. This prompted a series of attacks by the Wonnarua on

shepherds and farm wo[...]ilitary (Milliss 1994:54-66).

Perry’s analysis of the 1828 census shows that there were 191 farms in the Hunter
Valley. Of these 50% were greater in area than 1000 acres and took up the majority of
land (91.5%). Some 18% of the farms were under 100 acres and 33% were between
100 and 999 acres occupying 8.1% of the valley (Perry 1963:Table 12). Perry has
noted[...]er farms under 1000 acres had a much greater area of the farm
under cultivation and generally held mor[...]er cultivation but these only formed
a small part of the overall holding (2% according to Perry). The[...]y sheep as cattle. According to Perry’s
mapping of grants the smaller farms were located on small patches of alluvial land
along the Hunter River particularly in the east of the Valley while the larger grazing
farms were lo[...]he Illawarra region.
As well, there were a number of small settlements of sealers and later Whalers on the
Victorian coast[...]Abbott 1971 :130). The reform introduced a system
of both grants and land sales as well as the renting of Crown Lands adjacent to
freehold property (Abbott[...]o counties and parishes resulting in the creation of the "limits of location",
the boundaries of the Nineteen Counties (Perry 1963:45-46). These have been seen by
some as a form of "iron curtain" but as Perry (1963246) poin[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (53)[...]the Hunter Valley (after Perry 1963)

The Limits of Location

The wool industry reached a peak in 1826, a year of intense economic speculation in
sheep and cattle (Abbott 1971:57-59). The onset of a drought in 1827 (which lasted
several years) and a decline in wool prices from 1828 reduced some of the investment
in wool. This caused a recession and many colonists became insolvent and the flow of
immigrants slowed to a trickle. However by 1831,[...]ces began to climb higher, prompting another wave of immigration. The demand
for land and thus the ever-increasing spread of settlement was underpinned by the
increasing success of the wool industry and the need to find good graz[...]s that attracted high prices, most
clips were not of that quality and so profits were hard to come by, but this point was
obscured in the general feeling of optimism.

By 1828, settlement had reached the boundaries of the limits and the continuing
success of grazing was requiring that even more land be foun[...]e, implemented

the so-called "Ripon" regulations of 1831. The regulations were aimed at
concentrating settlement within the limits of location and regularising the forms of

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (54)Figure 3.5 The Limits of Location

occupation. As such, they have been seen as reflecting to some extent the settlement
theories of Edward Gibbon Wakefield in his A Letter from Syd[...]hed in 1829.
Wakefield argued for a denser level of settlement and higher land prices (Jeans
1975:114[...]29 [1829]). Wakefield’s views had a great deal of influence in
Westminster despite the fact that t[...]nd all land was to be sold with the reserve
price of 5/- per acre (no credit). Revenue from the land sales was to sponsor
immigration. Land outside the "limits of location" was not for sale, lease, or grant.

The policy of containing settlement within the limits could only work if the "limits of
location" was a strong boundary. There were a variety of boundaries that could
potentially hold back settlement. In terms of economic geography, settlement in the
late 18205 was at the end of a long track back to Sydney. Theoretically, this would
have limited the economic utility of cultivation as the largest market was weeks of
travel away. Grazing sheep and cattle for meat al[...]an argument
supporting the notion that the limits of location might have been an effective barrier
due[...]arket for agricultural produce. But the advantage of
wool as a product was its durability: it d[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (55)48

More importantly in terms of landscape, the limits were drawn almost at the start of
the plains stretching enticingly out west from the barrier of the Great Dividing Range.
Even today you can stand on the edge of the limits of location and see the plains
stretching out into t[...]2:115). In fact it was the
Government itself that officially breached the "limits ofof colonial land regulations
to cope with. Neither G[...]dilemma. As the men on the spot, they were aware
of the importance of the wool industry to the colony. Yet they also ha[...]instructions from the British Government, fearful of increased expenditure of the
colonies and influenced by Wakefieldian the[...]ion, to contain
settlement.30 Despite the variety of regulations introduced in 1828, 1831 and 1833,
with the ban on settlement outside the limits of location, sheep farmers were forced, if
they were[...]e the colonies formal
boundaries. The land policy of the Colonial Office was inevitably doomed in the face
of a successful pastoral industry requiring of necessity a dispersed settlement and the
lack of any physical, economic or military force to preve[...]ernors knew this as Well but had to make the best of it.

THE SQUATTING OCCUPATION OF SOUTH-EASTERN AUSTRALIA

With the expansion of pastoral settlement beyond the limits of location, the “Squatting
Age” had begun. There was no official sanction of settlement beyond these limits and
so all settlement beyond was squatting on Crown Land. It is this lack of sanction that
makes it difficult to establish pr[...]land at Duntroon on the Limestone Plains
(County of Murray within the limits) where he established a[...]tablished a squatting run Delegate at the
far end of the Monaro Tablelands (see Andrews 19792136) yet[...]is “A Letter-from Sydney" against the dispersal of settlement
as being uneconomic and proposed a com[...]uing that it was speculative and
that over supply of wool would keep wool prices below a profitable le[...]“clear, the remedies appropriate and the method of
presentation entertaining" (1928:ix). I suspect that means of reducing colonial expenditure was bound

to be of interest to the Colonial Office and the virtues M[...]Wakefield’s writing sewed to
help the adoption of his ideas.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (56)[...]$ 1830

VENOUS Sources

[3 1840

. 1848-9 rents of runs 1843-9

Figure 3.6 Standard Squatting Settlement Map of New South Wales

(after Jeans 1972)

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (57)of the run nor why it was located so far away in cou[...]It must also be noted that there is a great deal of variation in the histories of the initial
squatting settlement. The history of expansion from the Hunter into the Liverpool
Plai[...]olls 1984) yet there seems almost
nothing written of squatting west of the Bathurst area with historians relying mainly[...]afier squatting had
begun. There is a great deal of material on squatting from Victoria. Squatters we[...]ers
from Victorian Pioneers”. The reminiscences of other pioneers are readily available as
well as the six volumes of the Clyde Company Papers. Also, the government re[...]ncineration in the Garden Palace fire - the fate of the NSW squatting
files. For these reasons, the history of squatting has a distinctly Victorian flavour as[...].

Given these difficulties and the immense size of the land the squatters moved into it is
hard to write a coherent account of squatting settlement. This section attempts a brief
survey of the squatting expansion organised according to br[...]squatting runs were
established. The standard map of squatting expansion in South-Eastem Australia can
be found as Figure 3.6, this gives a broad scale view of the process of squatting
settlement.

The Monaro Tablelands

South of the Southern Highlands are a series of grassy plains, which were explored
from 1818 onwa[...]the mid-18205. As this land was
within the limits of location, the land was granted. Further south, beyond the limits are
the Monaro Tablelands, a series of rolling tablelands between the Great Dividing
Ran[...]learned
from the Aborigines he met that the name of the land was Monaroo. Andrews has
recently discussed the question of the earliest settlement on the Monaro (1998). He[...]ty was established by 1827 and Cooma in the heart of
the Monaro by 1828 (1998:95-96). Andrews discount[...]established Delegate (located at the southern end of the Plains) by 1826
considering that perhaps the[...]1827 and 1832 squatting runs covered the majority of Monaro
and squatters had penetrated throug[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (58)[...]s follows:

“Already have the flocks and herds of the Colonists spread themselves over
a large portion of this southern Country. They are to be found in great

numbers in Monarro Plains to the westward of Twofold Bay, and some are
said to roam as far to[...]urrumbidgee and into Victoria in 1824. The limits of location ran through Browning
Hill (a very promin[...]on the hill you
can see the plains and the course of the Murrumbidgee so it was really easy to head

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (59)[...]e 3:8 Runs in the Riverina

off beyond the limits of location. By 1829, when Charles Sturt passed thro[...]ablished a run further
downstream at the junction of the Murrumbidgee and Tumut Rivers (now Gundagai)[...]ins. Thus, the squatters were on the
eastern edge of a vast area of plain although the extent of the plain was as yet
unknown. The eastern end of the plain was mainly open woodland but as one mov[...]es more difficult to find. Sturt traversed much of this country in his
exploration and his report wa[...]mith
19682102). Thus while Stun mapped the course of the Murrumbidgee to its junction
with the[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (60)[...]w Wagga Wagga. Gammage notes the rapid
settlement of land on the Murrumbidgee near Narrandera by a number of sons of
emancipist farmers from the Airds district. He comments “by the end of 1833 the
entire Narrandera fi'ontage had thus be[...]986:30). This took settlement
right onto the edge of the salt bush plains. There Langford-Smith sugges[...]Settlement in the hilly areas immediately south of Gundagai was much slower. Major
Mitchell on his return from “Australia Felix” found traces of cattle and the tracks of a
gig on the northern bank of the Murray on 24th October 1836. He was actively
looking for squatters after hearing rumours of settlement having reached the Murray.
However, it was another six days of travel before his party reached a squatting run on
the Murrumbidgee. Undoubtedly, the reason for this lack of settlement was that the
terrain and drainage runs[...]d
Murray Rivers and squatters took the easy route of following the terrain rather than
going over the[...]rpool Ranges. Once over the ranges the headwaters of streams run north west into
the Narnoi River system which ultimately form the headwaters of the Darling river
system. This area was later cal[...]24 Henry Dangar while on duty surveying the farms of the Upper Hunter Valley
made several short[...]
Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (61)[...]d him. In late 1826 William Nowland took 100 head of cattle
from Fal Brook over Dart Brook Pass and be[...]g the Liverpool Plains from the south as a
series of squatting runs were established based on their grants within the limits of
location in the Bathurst — Mudgee area.

By 182[...]ved down to the Mooki River near the current
town of Quirindi and on the Peel River where Tamworth wou[...]ge, squatters had only settled as far as the site of Tamworth.
Mitchell explored parts of the Namoi River then moved north and located the[...]2 squatting runs were established at the
junction of Cox’s Creek and the Namoi and by 1833 a number of runs were
established along the Namoi (Rol[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (62)Many of these runs were from squatters dispersed by the A[...]988, Rolls 1984:101-103). This displaced a number of squatters who
then squatted further down the Namo[...]ters
were all along the river to the present town of Moree. Similar squatting runs were
established al[...]tween the rivers was not taken
up due to the lack of water.

Aboriginal resistance however truncated s[...]1824, a run was established near the present
town of Narromine and for about six years this was the mo[...]Squatting runs were taken up in the upper reaches of the Macquarie and
Bogan rivers between 1835 and 1[...]tember 1841 Aborigines attacked his
men and three of them were killed. This required an expedition by the Mounted Police
in which a number of Aborigines were killed and captured. Governor Gip[...]licence no doubt because he saw Lee’s disregard of instructions as the cause of
the trouble (Heathcote 1965:95; Jervisl956a, 1956[...]t remained until 1858 no doubt helped
by the lack of water in the region.

New England Tablelands

By 1832, squatting had reached the southern edge of the New England Tablelands
(Walker 1966: 1 1). Th[...]stern (seaward) side they are bounded by a series of steep
escarpments and broken ranges. To the west,[...]y until it joins
the western plains. The altitude of the plains is around 1200m above sea level (Jeans[...]rassland with numerous
granite boulders and areas of light timbering. Early settlers considered it too[...]“grass fires were
already a common feature” of the Tablelands at contact although Norton considers

that they were caused by “the careless attitude of aborigines” rather than considering
that they might have been part of a deliberate pattern (1971 :7).

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (63)[...]ese two events are generally held
to be the start of squatting on the New England Tablelands.

By 1835[...]99: 15). By 1840 Tenterfield at the northern end of the Tablelands had
been occupied. Land to the west (to the east were the hills and rainforests of the Great
Dividing Range) was occupied along the western margins of the New England
Tablelands. Bundarra had been tak[...]by the Aborigines and by
1837 there were a series of attacks on shepherds and repn'sals (Ferry 1999:18[...]ry region for race relations pointing to the acts of disposition

both physical and in terms of the language used to discuss settlement in New En[...]from Beardys Plains. Leslie was armed with
a copy of Cunningham’s map of his 1827 route across the Downs (French 199427).[...]sloping gently to the west
meeting the headwaters of the Darling River. The Darling Downs were elevate[...]der ewes,
2 bullock teams and draws and 22 ticket of leave convicts. This crowd took a month
to move t[...]at Toolbuna (French 1994:32-33). Rapid settlement of the Darling Downs
followed thereafter.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (64)[...]on the Darling Downs and New England

Settlement of Victoria

By the early 18305, Victoria was surrou[...]h settlements
along the Murrumbidgee, on the edge of the Monaro, into East Gippsland along the
route of the Snowy river and along the coastal fringe south of Twofold Bay. As well,
the available land for shee[...]ad all been granted and there was a
real shortage of suitable land.

There are a great many landform a[...]n types in Victoria but a simplified
description of the landscape at settlement is useful in understanding the pattern of
settlement. The northern boundary of Victoria is the Murray River which runs roughly
north west from its headwaters on the edge of the Monaro Plains. A series of alluvial
plains are found running west from Albury and stretching south by up to mom until
the northern edge of the Great Dividing Range is met. These plains were vegetated by
a mixture of open woodland and grassland. Further to the west along the Murray are a

series of aeolian plains (i. e. sand dunes) covered[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (65)[...]from
Port Phillip Bay west to the coastal swamps of the Coorong. There is a narrow coastal
plain. In[...]nge running parallel to the coast

and consisting of cool temperate rainforest. The volcanic plains in[...]grassland or savanna woodland mixed with a series of swamps, wetlands and small

rivers. They are notable for volcanic cones and areas of lava flows known as Stony
Rises.

The Great Divi[...]ds at the Dundas Plateau, runs through
the middle of Victoria. In the Western half of Victoria the ranges are not particularly
high or steep (with the exception of the Grampians) and were covered with open
forest.[...]e is higher and wetter leading to the
development of closed forests and rainforests with Alpine plain[...]g
above the tree line or in frost hollows.

South of the Great Dividing Ranges is the La Trobe valley, an area of open forests and
grasslands along the valley of the La Trobe River. There is a definite coastal[...]overed with cool temperate rainforest.

The coast of Victoria was well known as from the early 18003 it had been the site of a
number of sealers camps and had been well explored by parti[...]l Merinos (descendants from the Royal Flock) some of which they exported to
NSW. Following the decline[...]es in Australia. Seduced by Stirling’s accounts of the
Swan River they began the move there in 1829.[...]or sheep they moved on to Tasmania in 1832, which of course had little
to offer in the way of cheap land as they arrived just after the ending of free land
grants. Traditional accounts of the Hentys (eg. Bassett 1962) emphasise their she[...]rchandise and
banking. In this, they were typical of merchants rather than the general run of
squatters (Forth 1984 also makes this point).

Th[...]e successful in
establishing as the founding date of Victoria. The farm that the Hentys established
was a mixture of cultivation and grazing with about 800 she[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (66)[...]->- MITCHELL'S MYE

Figure 3.11 Settlement of Victoria (afici- Powell 1974)

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (67)[...]ablishment farming rich volcanic soil at the foot of the Tower Hill volcano. Both
the Henty and Griffith farming establishments also served the purpose of keeping the
specialised whaling crews intact by g[...]borigines that purported to sell him 60,000
acres of prime grazing land along the Western side ofof runs were taken up.

The final act in the initial settlement of Victoria was the exploration of Major
Mitchell, Surveyor General of NSW. Mitchell's expedition was to locate the course of
the Darling River and its junction with the Murra[...]s Portland Bay. Mitchell "discovered" large areas of good grazing land,
which he named "Australia Felix".

Imagine the feelings of the explorer when, on 29th August 1836, some house-like
rocks that he was in the process of discovering, turned out to be in fact real houses -
one of the Henty out-stations. Imagine the feelings of the Henty’s (Edward and
Francis were at Portland) to discover a senior government official - The Surveyor
General no less, at their i[...](i.e.
Mitchell) had not the most distant thought of our being here, and was not a little
surprised to find Englishmen in this Part of the World” (Peel 19961162). Major
Mitchell’s party was recorded by Edward Henty as consisting of the Major, Assistant
Surveyor Staplyton, 23 men a[...]disaffected Assistant are remembered today (diary of Edward Henty 26 August 1836
in Peel 1996).

Mitch[...]w Mount Macedon and thought he could see
evidence of the settlement at Port Phillip which he had learn[...]was
driving cattle overland to Port Phillip. This officially unoccupied land was buzzing
with settlement. Ironically on his return bringing news of this wholesale trespass,

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (68)61

Governor Bourke was more concerned with the legalities of Mitchell’s assault on the
Aborigines on the Mur[...]rs were at Portland
and Port Phillip.

The effect of Mitchell's expedition was not so much the new dis[...]in making more widely known the grazing potential of much of Victoria hitherto
known mainly by the Vandemonian[...]m Van Dieman’s Land. Thus, there were two types of settlers
the overlanders and the overstraiters. P[...]ip (rather than Portland) with a rapid
settlement of adjacent areas by overstraiters and some overlanders.

The sanctioning of squatting

The rapid expansion of settlement beyond the "limits of location" posed an
administrative problem for Gov[...]proposal to settle at Twofold Bay, the Secretary of State, Lord Aberdeen replied,
instructing Bourke[...]prepared to authorise a measure, the
consequence of which would be to spread over a still further extent of
territory a population which it was the objective of the late Land
Regulations to concentrate” (Aber[...]urke in a dilemma. He would have been quite aware
of settlement beyond the limits. Indeed, later in 18[...]His argument was that
wool was the chief product of NSW and to constrain it would be disastrous. Grazing
of necessity required settlement beyond the limits and Bourke admitted “the
proprietors of thousands of acres already find it necessary, equally with the[...]send large flocks beyond the present boundaries of location”. Besides, the
expense of removing the squatters from beyond the "limits of location" would be
greater than extending administration to cover them. Bourke suggested the
introduction of guidance and control funded by revenue from land[...]5, HRA).

32 Today the line is marked by a series of caims and arrows. the result of a bequest commemorating

Major Mitchell.
’3 Bourke was informed of Batman‘s settlement by the Lt. Governor of Van Dieman's Land, George
Arthur as well as by memorials from Gellibrand on behalf of the Port Phillip Association and of course

by Mitchell. Bourke suspected Arthur of wanting to administer Port Phillip hence the first paragraph of

Bourke‘s letter reminded Lord Glenelg that his commission covered Port Phillip, as it was part of
NSW.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (69)62

Fortunately Lord Glenelg, who was now Secretary of State, agreed. His reply arrived
in Sydney in August 1836. Glenelg was concerned to ensure that the rights of the
Aborigines “be studiously defended” but conceded the inability to prevent dispersion
of settlement. “It is wholly vain to expect that any positive Laws, especially those of a
very young and thinly peopled Country, will be energetic enough to repress the spirit
of adventure and speculation in which the unauthoris[...]ing to enter with more minuteness into the detail of your plan” (Glenelg to
Bourke 13 April 1836 HRA[...]Port Phillip District was
proclaimed and a party of officials dispatched to the Yarra to bring law to t[...]“An Act to restrain the unauthorised occupation of Crown Lands" (7 Will IV c. 4)”
was passed. This allowed people of “good character” to be licensed to occupy Crown
Land outside the "limits of location" for an annual fee. Evidence of occupation was to
be manifested by some kind of building or cultivation. The revenue from the act[...]t (Abbott

1971 : 137, Fletcher 1989). The system of licences came into operation on the 1S!

January 1837. This bill put into effect the decision of Glenelg to recognise squatters
and emphasised tha[...]rated.

THE 18405 STRUGGLE AND STRIFE

The decade of the 18405 was the period in which the squatters e[...]he squatters as the squattocracy.

The Depression of 1841

At some point in the 18305, squatting moved from a simple expansion of the wool
industry into the realm of a speculative boom. Abbott points to excellent prices for
ordinary grades of wool in the years 1834-36 and for sheep during “the later half of
the 1830s” as the seeds of the industry’s downfall (Abbott 1971 :66). Capital flowed
into NSW for the expansion of the wool industry, irrespective of a rational view of the
return on investment. This created a s[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (70)[...]ble, given the high demand for sheep irrespective
of the nature of their fleeces.35 Thus, returns on investment wer[...]about 3d per pound
(Abbott 1971 :64). The effect of the wool price drop is a matter of contention.
Fitzpatrick (1941) argued for its imp[...]ued for taking
into consideration all the factors of production in the wool industry (such as declinin[...]is that for many runs created in the latter half of the 18305 it would have
taken four or five years for the costs of production and returns to be established and
comm[...]actor considered by Fitzpatrick is the
withdrawal of British capital following an economic downturn in[...]Broeze (1993) viewed the 18405 from the viewpoint of capitalist/merchant Robert
Brooks, and saw the origins of the depression as a glut in the colonial market f[...]d market (1993:157-
158). Broeze argues that much of the capital that financed the pastoral boom and[...]ome latitude in investing the Australian profits of Brook’s trade in
other fruitful ventures. “With prices buoyant, profit rates of up to 100 per cent, and
demand apparently growing[...]e first Melbourne land boom. With the
opening up of Port Phillip the Government surveyed the township of Melbourne and
put the land up for sale. From the[...]Shaw notes that land was sold at an average price of £1 .30 per acre but
resold at an average of £1 0 (19952163). The prices were speculative giv[...]note the fall in wool prices and stress the need of wools to be “very clean

and strong in the staple, which none of them were last year" (Brown 19522112).

36 There[...]Hartwell (late 1840) on this

point. There would of course be inevitable lag effects as there[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (71)undeveloped nature of Melbourne and surrounding areas. Many of the speculators
were Sydney merchants. Sales proved strong until the end of 1841 (Shaw 19962163).
Shaw blames the change in government land policy as being a factor in the bursting of
the speculative bubble for land in Melbourne (199[...]ely, this is too
parochial a factor. The collapse of squatting speculation across South—Eastem
Australia inevitably caused the collapse of expectation for the development of
Melbourne and consequently speculative land value[...]lian wool that they had
imagined. Thus, the flow of capital and immigrants into NSW slowed to a trick[...]e situation. The first major failure in the City of
London was Montefiore Brothers in February 1841 and others followed quickly afier.
In Australia the case of AB. Spark of Tempe is well known. Spark acted as an agent
for a number of British merchants such as Duncan Dunbar. Using their funds Spark
invested in all sectors of the economy including nine squatting runs (Broeze
1993:162-163). As a Director of the Bank of Australia, Spark also seems to have been
involved[...]s major defaulting loan was to Hughes and Hoskins of some £144,895. Spark
merely owed £44,244 (Butli[...]3.

The depression cut a swathe through the ranks of the squatters. Despite the
importance of the depression, no comprehensive listing of squatters bankrupted by it
has been made. Shaw qu[...]1996:166).
Paul de Serville concluded his account of good society at Port Phillip with a chapter
on the early 18405 called “The End of the Golden Age” (1980). This was certainly the
view of author Rolf Boldrewood (Thomas Alexander Browne)[...]epression.37

The “hero” who ended this cycle of depression was apparently Henry O’Brien of Yass
who invented “boiling down". This was the conversion of live sheep to tallow for
which there was at least[...]ted with boiling down (Kiddle
19621136). A number of extensive boiling down establishments were set up along the
banks of the lower Yarra and Saltwater (Maribymong) rivers[...]ry (1971 :82).

In conjunction with the discovery of boiling down were legislative measures to ease
th[...]t

37 Browne‘s family lived in the rural suburb of Heidelberg on the site used by the Heidelberg School of
Artists (and incidentally where my grandfather la[...]house). His was perhaps the first in a long
line of “golden summers“ at Heidelberg. Rolf Bolderwood wrote a number of articles and books
looking back on this period.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (72)allowed a person to trade their way out of debt without fear of imprisonment. The
Lien on Wool and Livestock Act allowed the squatter to borrow money on the security
of the next wool clip without losing possession or control of the sheep. The
Legislation although rejected by the Colonial Office, was passed again by the
Legislative Council[...]ustry as a whole to regroup and giving some sense of
security to investors. From 1843 or 1844 matters[...]p and wool and a
consequent increase in the value of squatting runs.

The struggle against Governor Gi[...]r’s battle with Governor Gipps lay in the state of the
pastoral industry following the depression of the early 18403 and the insecurity of
squatting tenure. Gipps antagonised squatters on[...]licence to William Lee highlighted the insecurity of squatting tenure (Roberts
1968:217).38 It should[...]the Legislative Council.

From a Government point of view squatting was marked by an increasing demand[...]ervices such as police and cheap immigrants 9 all of which cost money.
However the nature of squatting tenure made sure that there was little[...]pied, a point made by Lord Russell when Secretary of State for the
Colonies (Russell to Gipps 20 June[...]ired to put forward
the Australian Land Sales Act of 1842 (5&6 Vic c.36) which imposed a minimum
price of £1 per acre for Crown Lands sold after survey.

The squatting legislation of 1836 had been renewed in 1838 (by a continuation[...]from a
levy on stock. The land outside the limits of location was divided into nine squatting
districts each with its own Commissioner of Crown Lands and a detachment of police.
These changes were not opposed. The 1839[...]squatting. On
one side was the undoubted benefit of squatting but on the other the need to generate
r[...]There was also the need for the
moral improvement of the squatters. In a dispatch on the squatting pro[...]to the Social and Moral evils,
which such a state of things, if left unameliorated, must of necessity lead to”. The

38 Lee’s case was pr[...]ubsided emigration which Gipps was to pay for out
of colonial funds thus placing another demand on a d[...]t further to restrain the unauthorised occupation of Crown Lands, and to provide the means of
defi‘aying the expense of 0 Border Police (3 Vic c.).

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (73)66

problems were the lack of Religion and Schools and the poor quality of squatter living
conditions due to lack of secure tenure. If this situation was not fixed, Gipps held out
the prospect of “a race of Englishmen. . .springing up in a state approaching to that of
untutored barbarism” (Gipps to Stanley 3 April[...]while maintaining
the Crown’s ownership rights of squatting runs. Gipps clearly saw a link between[...]In April 1844, Governor Gipps introduced two sets of proposed regulations, which
were to replace the e[...]chase regulations, which allowed limited purchase of runs (1968: 191). The
occupation regulations were[...]he 2nd April 1844 and were really a
tightening up of the earlier regulations. They limited the size of runs forcing squatters
to take out a licence for[...]nce. Making them pay
for each licence was one way of increasing land revenues. Gipps made these change[...]rough the Legislative
Council which was in favour of squatting and might have opposed any changes
invo[...]-May 1844,
proposed that after 5 years occupation of a run a squatter should have the opportunity
of purchasing 320 acres for a homestead. Having made[...]the squatter
would then be entitled to possession of the run for eight years. A second 320 acres
block[...]le would have to be by auction, however
the value of improvements would be deducted from the price or[...]e squatters saw the Gipps regulations as a denial of security of tenure, a source of
increased costs and an abuse of the Governors powers (through his use of regulation
rather than legislation). Opposition t[...]as the "Gentry". Rather than go into the details of this (see Abbott
1971: 158-176; Buckley 1956, 195[...]itical campaign that followed marks the emergence of the
squatters as a political group.

In discussin[...]y a piper and band, they rode through
the streets of Melbourne to make their protest. In the evening, some 300 of wealth,
rank and beauty attended a grand ball aft[...]in the town were
broken and the Pastoral Society of Australia Felix was formed (Kiddle 1962:16[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (74)of tenure and
of the investments made in improving their runs.

Th[...]mpaign, the squatters were supported by a variety of other groups such as
merchants, small squatters,[...]5) have discussed the reasons for this wide range of support. Abbott sums up this
discussion by conclu[...]the time) and thus had an interest in the success of
pastoralism (1971 : 166). The Gentry supported th[...]itially as they had
similar interests and because of the way Gipps tried to introduce the regulations[...]though opposed to Gipp's land policy, led a
group of Gentry to condemn the violent verbal attacks on Gipps and the integrity of
his office (Ward 1981:145-146). Roe argued that as the[...]than for the
common good and this alienated many of their supporters. He quotes Robert Lowe,
then a prominent member of the Legislative Council as saying "He thought the[...]by An Act to amend an Act for
regulating the sale of Waste Lands belonging to the Crown in the Austral[...]on for the management thereof (9 & 10 Vic c.
104) of 1846 was passed in England42 and brought into operation through the Orders
in Council of 1847.43 The Orders in Council divided NSW into th[...]cluded the original 19 counties plus the counties of
Macquarie and Stanley, three miles inland from th[...]s was helped by political changes in the position of the Secretary of State for the Colonies.

‘2 Otherwise ca[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (75)[...]he remainder (afier removing

settled districts) of the counties of Norrnanby, Grant and Bourke as well as Gippsland.
Afier 1848, the Western District was included.

Runs of up to 1600 acres could be leased for 8 years with[...]3) Unsettled Districts: which comprised the rest of NSW as it then was. Leases for 14
years could be granted for each run of 3200 acres.

The Orders in Council empowered the[...]eases for runs to anyone he
saw fit for duration of up to 14 years. The use of the run was for pastoral purposes but
the lessee[...]for the family and establishment. A
minimum rent of £10 in advance was payable with an additional £2-10 for each 1000
sheep above 4000 based on an estimate of the capability of each run to stock sheep.

During the term of the lease, the land was not open to purchasers ot[...]res in area. The land
was sold at a minimum price of £1 per acre. Each lot was to be rectangular in form
with at least two sides of the lot had to be aligned to the cardinal points of the
compass. No lot was to have more than 440 yards of frontage for every 160 acres. If a
lease expired,[...]hase at the unimproved value. Otherwise the value of improvement was
estimated and added to the value of the upset price of the land. If the land was sold,
the former lessee received the value of improvements.

As part of the Orders in Council, the squatting runs had to be described, assessed and
licensed. The descriptions of runs were printed in the Government Gazette throu[...]ase line information for the squatting occupation of NSW and
Victoria (see Billis and Kenyon 1974; Cam[...]England region and
many local histories have maps of squatting runs based on the 1848 Gazettes.

The s[...]capital improvements on the land with some degree of security for their
investment. However, others viewed the outcome of the 1846 Act as locking up land,
which should hav[...]uatters. Thus, the 1846
Act marked the beginnings of the free selection movement (see Chapter 4).

The Consolidation of squatting

The decade of the 18405 was, in addition to economic woes and p[...]ttling down.

The traditional historical accounts of 18405 emphasise that the new form of tenure
following the passing of the Waste Lands Occupation Act allowed the[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (76)[...]ly any squatters as yet attempted to buy any part of their
runs” (1962: 1 71) but then notes that “building of substantial home stations in stone
was rare befor[...](1962:171). Kiddle goes on to note three examples of stone house construction45 but
curiously Golf Hil[...]ad
received word from England" about the question of tenure. An alternative view might
be that afier[...]dation could take place. They knew the
capability of their runs and the economics of grazing so they could afford to upgrade
their housing. One might go further to argue that construction of a good house might
be one way of expressing the respectability of squatting and therefore the need for the
Government to treat squatters “fairly”. The construction of good houses in the mid-
1840s during the struggle with Governor Gipps might be part of a broad political

strategy based on the importance of the wool industry to Australia and the respectable
nature of squatters.

The evidence of colonial statistics would be one way of testing this idea but as the
collection districts and information categories vary with each round of data collection
colonial statistics are notoriously difficult to work with. The 1841 Census shows that
of the 356 houses outside the County of Bourke (which included the town of
Melboume) there were only 17 houses of brick or stone. This proportion (about 5%)
seems[...]han the census data for other squatting districts of NSW as
there are 10 brick houses recorded for the rest of NSW outside Sydney! Of course
building material is only an extremely rou[...]ansion.

Another important factor in the creation of more substantial houses was the age of the
squatters. As many squatters arrived in Austr[...]marry. Once
marriage occurred then the influence of the wife was thought to “improve” both the
sq[...]o purchase pre-
emptive rights and had the option of purchasing at auction any parts of their runs
surveyed and put up for sale it is dif[...]ell notes that squatters had made large purchases of freehold land in the
Western District and on the[...]ly any squatters as yet attempted to buy any part of their
run” (19621171). For NSW there is little information on the extent of pre-selection
purchases of runs.46 There are some statistics on the acres of land alienated under pre-

‘4 This security was based on the pre-emptive right and the promise of leases.
‘5 For those not familiar with W[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (77)[...]ent listing the land
alienated from the beginning of responsible government (1856) to 1860. This return
gives some indication of the extent to which squatters were actually purch[...]most common purchase was for 160 acres, a quarter of a
square mile and most purchases (221) were of either the square mile or half or quarter
mile blocks indicating the performance of this unit. Analysis of the unit sizes shows
two distributions one of small lots and one of larger lots. The small lots would be the
result of pre—emptive purchases of town or village allotments. This is where a villa[...]nd purchased as
pre-emptive right is less than 1% of the relevant district even in the Macleay and the[...]intensive. This suggests that While 159,853 acres
of land were sold this was a very small portion of the land in squatting districts.

Table 3.1 Land sold in NSW 1856-1860

Acres sold No of lots Average size
sold
-

Pastoral district Area of District
(square miles)

Percent of
common lot District[...]um

Land sales depended on the slow progress of land survey. First the surveyor had to

survey an[...]he squatters were able to purchase surveyed parts of

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (78)[...]rare occurrence in NSW and
Victoria as the speed of the survey of land was very slow due to the limited number of
surveyors employed by the Government.

In other areas, large tracts of freehold land were purchased outright. The Austin[...]om the
Government and from the initial purchasers of small blocks. They displaced smaller
squatters su[...]d within the settled
districts.47

Another method of consolidating runs was by applying for a Special[...]by Lord
Russell, which existed for a short period of time before pressure from Governor Gipps
forced a[...]968:108-109,
208-209). These allowed larges areas of land to be sold and the unfortunate squatters
wer[...]W.J. Clarke used a similar provision in the Sale of Crown Lands
Act (5 & 6 Vic c.36 1842) to arrange[...]en him and the
government to purchase 31375 acres of land. In doing so, he displaced six established
squatters including John Aitken who had been one of the original overstraiters in
1836. Clark’s pur[...]ndera where Gammage noted that
with the gazetting of the run boundaries in 1848 every one of the Sydney based
squatters in the district disputed their boundaries. Gammage also points to the use of
squatters connections with “Officials” (by virtue of their social status) to draw
boundaries favourabl[...]there are few historical studies with the detail of Gammage so whether this was the
situation all over NSW and Victoria is not clear.

A further function of consolidation was that of the squatters actually realising what
the land in[...]ns argues there was a notable
change in the ratio of sheep to cattle between 1839 and 1848. Cattle req[...]to maintain, however the big problem was the lack of a
market for cattle. Jeans notes that the major m[...]areas sheep
suffered from footrot.

Consideration of these factors, often not apparent until several years experience on the
land resulted in the emergence of regional differences. Jeans presents this[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (79)[...]7 & 28). There appears to be a decline in numbers of
cattle in the Monaro, Murrumbidgee, Lachlan and B[...]sheep. It also should be noted that the boundary of pastoral
expansion was in the 18405 roughly the edge of the Central division of NSW and
there was little settlement in the Western division of NSW of the Mallee or Wimmera
regions of Victoria.

WHO WERE THE SQUATTERS?

Who were the[...]rown land without permission or after the passing of
the Crown Lands Occupation Act with a licence. However, there were degrees of
squatting and squatters were not a homogenous group. The first popular use, from the
mid-18205, of the term "squatter" referred to mainly ex-convict[...]in a particular area. They were
commonly accused of stealing cattle and sheep, buying and selling sto[...]es to squatting other than the illegal occupation of land (Fletcher
1989:272). As Governor Bourke poin[...]rsons familiarly called squatters are the objects of great animosity
on the part of the wealthier settlers. As regards, however, the unauthorised
occupation of waste lands, it must be confessed that these Squatters are only
following in the steps of all the most influential and unexceptional
Colon[...]e everywhere to be found side

by side with those of the obnoxious squatter and held on no better titl[...]tcher suggests, as Governor Bourke was suspicious of the motives of the large
landowners in the colony in protesting against the evils of squatting, official action
against squatting was not swifi. A[...]origins
stretched back to the first twenty years of the colony, the second being a group of free

emigrants arriving in the 1820s and 18305 ([...]. Both groups shared
common attitudes and notions of respectability (1965240). However, there was tension

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (80)[...]stile (1965:49). However squatting posed a series of
divided loyalties largely because so many of the Gentry were squatting themselves.
Roe argues[...]acceptable only when brought within the framework of land ownership and
attachment to land" (1965:51). Roe's view of the squatters is entirely negative. The
squatters[...]Aborigines, the working class and the orderly use of
land (Roe 1965:61-75). He wrote "(the squatters) must appear not as heroes of the
golden fleece or happy spirits of the wilderness, but as men acting without grace o[...]more weight" (1965261).

De Serville in his study of "Good society in Melbourne", where there was no
p[...]d the respectable
men was marked by the exclusion of the respectable from "good society" (the
exclusio[...]espectable survived the tough economic conditions of those
times to enter "good society" as the squatt[...]hur's position). Afier all if Abbot’s
analysis of the pastoral industry is correct then the main profit in the industry was
found in the selling of surplus stock to new squatters (1971:108-125), so the squatters
were business associates of the Gentry rather than criminals. Moreover, they shared
the same value of respectability which was incorporated into the Wa[...]cupation Act as the requirement that squatters be of “good character”. This
emerging class of respectable squatters became the squattocracy. Tw[...]Capital

Abbott has made a comprehensive analysis of the economics of the wool industry.
Abbot presented data on the costs and returns of the wool industry from a variety of
contemporary sources (1971:108-125). These showed[...]o £2000 to establish a run depending on the size of the run and
its location. There was also the annual cost of producing the wool. The gist of
Abbott's argument is that the main source of profit in the industry was due to the sale
of surplus stock rather than purely by sale of wool. The costs ofof sources.
Some came from successful colonia[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (81)how some of this money in fact came from the investment by Australian agents for
British traders of the profits from their trading operations. These[...]onial borrowing raised some capital. The majority of capital came from overseas
in the form of personal, family or company capital (Connell and[...]is large
pastoral interests came with the capital of the Royal Bank behind him. George Russell
squatted in Victoria as manager of the Clyde Company, a company formed by
Scottish c[...]is also worth reflecting on Abbott’s evidence of the poor rate of return on
investment in the wool industry (1971 :[...]ocracy may have been relatively well off in
terms of assets but they were cash poor, a factor that wou[...]ave in abundance was access to land, as a licence of a run cost
only £10 annually and, until the Orders in Council, the size of the run was unlimited.
Thus, a large pastoral est[...]ing the runs and so on.

Character

The character of an individual was expressed in terms of respectability. Respectability
was the underpinning of the squatter’s status; it is what separated the[...]ry defines respectable as “worthy or deserving of respect by reason of some
inherent quality or qualities” or alternatively “of good or fair social standing and
having the moral[...]is
defined as “the state quality or condition of being respectable in point of character or
social standing”.

Respectability must be seen in the context of what the particular qualities of character
or social standing were at any particul[...]ry between social groups at any one time and also of course over
time as well. The “inherent qualiti[...]eement by historians that there is a
distinct set of “Victorian values” that relate in large way t[...]” and “genteel”, referring to the qualities of both breeding and
birth that are of course part of respectability. I have chosen to use respe[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (82)75

adherence to the “cult of domesticity” is what makes an individual respec[...]on in Appendix Two).

Respectability was a series of values shared between the Gentry and some of the
Squatters although some respectable squatters were excluded from "Good Society"
because of their lack of rank, both classes excluded the lower classes because of their
lack or rank and respectability. Respectability seems to involve a sense of maintaining
civilised standards such as manners (and other forms of proper behaviour), education,
polite conversation, taste and some sense of public duty.49 Importantly it included
adherence to the “cult of domesticity”. By being respectable, the squatte[...]al advancement in later years.

In a recent study of Arrnidale on the New England tablelands, Ferry ar[...]ng (1999: 128-134). Ferry argues that the origins of this ideology lie in part in the
extreme gender imbalance in the New England district of 622 adult men for each 100
adult women. Certainly Ferry’s argument would hold true for much of the squatting
territories as a similar gender imbalance existed across much of South-eastem
Australia.

Greater attention to squ[...]respectable squatters who had an alternative way of life based on what
Ferry calls the “ideology of respectability”. From the pioneering period som[...]ng activity) written
in 1837 shows the influence of the domestic ideology in particular in his commen[...]diggers, would have been attracted by the freedom of restraint squatting
had. As Goodman argues for go[...]on 26th September 1853
(Bride 1969) made a number of interesting remarks about his life as a squatter.
Although his comments on the changes to the environment of his run are well known,
he also discussed his fellow squatters.

“Numbers of the young gentlemen who came out to this colony a[...]way in which they managed their sheep farms. Few of them
knew anything of mechanics, and they were totally unable to make comfort for
themselves or their servants. In consequence of which they fell back lower in
morality and energy than many of their men, for dirt and filth were noticeable

49 Much of the criticism of the squatters from the Gentry was based on the sq[...]with Governor Gipps (see Roe 1965:75). The Gentry
of course masked their self-interest with the veil of “public good”.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (83)[...]if the owner was
looking out through a large wisp of hair on his face. The three eventful years,
which will be long remembered in this colony, of 1841-2-3, swept off most of
these young gentlemen with their herds and all. .[...]is placed on appearance and husbandry as a mirror of an individual's moral
state. In short, ones chara[...]ones actions, ones appearance, and
ones husbandry of ones property.

Thus the respectable squatter, one who was on his way to becoming a member of the
squattocracy, would express his respectability or character through the medium of the
squatting landscape through speech, gesture,[...]accounts can give us access to the squatter modes of respectable behaviour in
particular non-material elements such as speech. Historical archaeological analysis of
the landscape can access material aspects of how squatters expressed their
respectability through their husbandry of the landscape.

SQUATTING LANDSCAPES

Pre-squatting landscapes

There are two categories of pre-squatting landscapes. Firstly, there are the landscapes
created since 1788 within the limits of location. These were created as an outcome of
the development of agriculture discussed above. In terms of squatting the larger
estates refined the technique of sheep and cattle farming in Australia, which was then
applied beyond the limits of location. The second pre-squatting landscape is of course
that created as a result of Aboriginal settlement.

Studies of Aboriginal settlement at the contact period are n[...]to a sophisticated understanding and manipulation of their environment through
activities such as cons[...]hen asked, have demonstrated a detailed knowledge of the use of fire to
maintain and expand desirable ecosystems[...]n regularly burning
the landscape throughout much ofof squatting is that
Aboriginal burning patterns wer[...]50 Fire Stick farming has almost become a cliché of Australian environmental history (Pyne 1991). One
of the best studies is by Chris Haynes (1985) as he[...]the view that
Aborigines were living in some form of the “Garden of Eden“ (Lines 1991). My own work on fire[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (84)77

all squatters had to do in terms of adapting the Aboriginal landscape to squatting was
to get rid of the Aborigines. Removing the Aborigines was not an easy task
particularly as the top levels of government were concerned that Aboriginal rights[...]on occasion were prepared to attempt prosecution of squatters
for murder. The squatters were concerne[...]e
maintained and this ofien required the removal of Aborigines. This process is quite
well documented for example in the studies of Christie (1979), Corris (1968), Milleas
(1992) and in the published journals of the Protector of Aborigines in Victoria,
George Augustus Robinson.

Pioneering

Settlement of South-Eastem Australia shows a common pattern. Fi[...]'
Settlement seems to have moved down the valleys of major rivers rather than across
catchment boundaries unless necessary.

The initial layout of a squatting run was similar across South-Eastem A[...]a simple hut and stock yard with perhaps an area of cultivation around it. This was the
homestead or[...]or ridge lines. Where this was
not possible lines of blazed trees or plough lines were used to mark a[...]mustered when required. Large scale
modification of the landscape was not attempted partly because of the lack of tenure
and partly because grazing did not require much in the way of technology; a few
shepherds huts, some folds for[...]as
required (see Abbott 1971 :Chapter 4). As much of the land occupied was well
grassed, there was lit[...]s flood levels. Wool
sheds replaced the practice of shearing in the open. Freeman quotes Curr’s description
of his woolshed (circa 1841) “as being a common bark building” and also points to
woolsheds of the same era being thatch and slab construction (Freeman 1980:13).
There was also the question of wool washing. The idea was to wash the various
impurities out of the wool before shipment for sale. Initial[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (85)[...]le demonstrates that even during this early phase of squatting the squatters
developed a range of sheep washes ranging from a simply driving the sheep through
running water to a sophisticated system of spouts and warm water established by the
Learmont[...]1962:71-72).

Overseers or managers occupied many of the runs on behalf of squatting interests
located well inside the limits of location. Given the fragmentary nature of the
historical records it is impossible to quantify the precise numbers of managed runs
versus owner occupied runs but manag[...]er in overall number.
However, significant areas of owner occupied runs can be identified, Port Phil[...]at the squatters. They were most likely a
mixture of emancipists, convicts and currency lads, in other words, not a respectable
class of people. There would have been little incentive fo[...]1828 Census

A Murrumbidgee River. I) Pebbly bed of river.

B Tumat River. c High Banks.

C Creek. (1 High declivities of hills.
D Wheat paddock. e Low reedy bank.[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (86)[...]f.53 Coopers watercolours also reflect something of the
diverse nature of squatters. He was not a bluff and hearty, unrefi[...]e refined matters such as art. The first series of
paintings and sketches, from January 1842 when th[...]eys during 1842.
There is nothing else in the way of infrastructure in the landscape. The flocks would[...]shows the “second hut” which formed the basis of the head
station at Challicum (Brown 1987: Plate[...]watercolour (Plate 10) show three distinct groups
of buildings. A core group around the main hut consists of the but and separate
kitchen with a store and car[...]ill and at some distance was the woolshed. Detail of the woolshed by the creek
is shown in Plates 12 a[...]ts” emerged. This is in line with the principal
of separating work and workers from the respectable[...]nstructed in 1845. This involved the
construction of a larger building in front of the second hut. This larger building was of
weatherboards with shingle roof. Its front was de[...]dings is a substantial garden that shows evidence of some design
although it is in essence practical.[...]slabs driven into the ground. This has the effect of forming a ha-
ha. On one side garden beds[...]
Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (87)[...]An undated painting (but after the construction of the final hut) Plate 25, shows men
at work in an extensive cultivation paddock adjacent and to the rear of the homestead
group.

Finally, Cooper painted a panorama of the run from the Homestead (no date is given).
The landscape of the run is shown as mainly open plains with rolling hills and patches
of open forest. Several out-stations are shown in th[...]well as shepherds and
their flock. Small groups of cattle are shown grazing. An Aboriginal en[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (88)[...]e run is not shown as being heroically
carved out of the environment but more as naturally occurring t[...]he images run off into the
distance with no sense of any boundary between Challicum and the neighbouri[...]forms a core from which
small nuclei in the form of the out-station huts radiate.

The landscape around the homestead from the time of the “second hut” is physically
bounded into w[...]d masters area. The third hut
and the development of men’s quarters by 1845 reinforces this. The ha-[...]mall drawbridge.
From the educated visitors point of view the garden would have looked quite well
orde[...]thes shown in two images as well as the
behaviour ofof an extensively developed pastoral property with s[...]hat they
could not develop their runs due to lack of tenure. Yet Coopers sketches along with
other ill[...]prepared to invest in their runs
despite the lack of secure tenure. Fur example, the sketches of Emma von Stieglitz
show the development of the runs occupied by her brother and her husband. In
particular her “Interior of a Squatters Hut and Port Phillip 1841” shows a solid
building well fitted with the comforts of home including numerous books and a
writing desk.[...]lated material culture and relating to the values of muscular
Christianity. Visitors to the hut or house of such a squatter would be in no doubt
through the material culture encountered of the squatter’s station and rank.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (89)Figure 3.16 View from the Window of Hut, Challicum, 1850
Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (90)Figure 3.17 Interior of a Squatters But at Port Phillip, 1841

Charles No[...]Alexander Dennistoun Lang show the establishment
of a garden and carriage loop and the well-fumished[...]hings books
and writing implements. The exteriors ofof tenure.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (91)87

edge of the frontier the squatters were projecting their social position in the form of
material culture and in their husbandry of the run.

CONCLUSION

The main process underlying development and expansion of the pioneering period of
squatting was the successful development of the wool industry, which offered the
enterprising[...]on a small capital outlay.
Squatting was a result of the expansion of the wool industry colliding with the land
policy of the Crown that sought to limit expansion. The result was in favour of
expansion especially as it was comparatively easy to move beyond the limits of
location and take up a run. Squatting offered cheap land (but no security of tenure)
and the promise of good profits and in the 18303 took on the characteristics of a
speculative boom. The boom resulted in the squatting occupation of most of the
available grasslands in South-Eastem Australi[...]s, had established tenure for their
runs and much of South-Eastem Australia was held under squatting l[...]g at squatting landscapes, the rudimentary nature of a squatting run has often
been emphasised. Howeve[...]nding
landscape, displayed the respectable nature of the squatter. It is this desire to be seen
as res[...]eople pursuing the economic and moral improvement of the
“waste” land by taking up the land and gr[...]by the Governors, firstly forced the
sanctioning of squatting in 1836 when the Colonial government was forced to
recognise the defacto settlement of South-Eastem Australia and bring it under control.
Secondly it was used to argue for some more secure form of tenure for squatting in
the 1840s, although in this case the view of Governor Gipps differed from those of the
squatters as to the form and implementation of this tenure.

Thus, the broad processes forming squatting landscapes are the economics of the wool
industry (and to some extent cattle graz[...]to be seen
as “respectable” and lands policy of the Colonial government. These operated on a
land[...]run to have established a head station
consisting of crude huts or tents and for the sheep flocks (of 500 to 1000 sheep) to be
located in out-stations across the landscape area. The boundaries of runs were
established on natural features or mark[...]nment was readily adapted to grazing. Small areas of cultivation
were established adjacent to the head[...]ide some vegetables to add to the
relentless diet of meat.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (92)The phase of pioneering seems to have been comparatively short[...]d writing as well as the more sporting activities of
squatting such as chasing stock and shooting things. This period of construction marks
the end of the pioneering phase on a squatting run. Typically this occurs much earlier
than the usually given date of 1848 when squatters were given security of tenure.

Thus while the pioneering of squatting runs across South—Eastern Australia o[...]eriod on each run
was comparatively short as some of the squatters moved to assert their respec[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (93)[...]ralia

Hurrah for Australia the golden,
Where men of all nations now toil,
To none will e’er be beho[...]o poverty here to distress us,
“Tis the country of true liberty,

No proud lords can oppress us,

Bu[...]Then hurrah for Australia the golden,
Where men of all nations now toil,
To none will e’er be beho[...]or a home in the vast wilderness,
Whilst millions of acres are lying
In their primitive wild wildernes[...]5)

INTRODUCTION

This chapter traces the history of squatting from the period of consolidation until the
period after the depression and drought of the 1890s. Looking forward from 1848 the
squatter[...]ul life made secure by their leases
and the right of pre-emption with only the traditional Australian devils of drought and
flood to give any cause for c[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (94)91

There are two themes in this chapter: the development of the selection movement, and
the further development of the squatting and the pastoral industry as a whol[...]selectors alike. Unfortunately, an understanding of how this affected the
landscape requires a detailed and somewhat technical description of the land
legislation in order to trace the change[...]so on the landscape, both in the
actual selection of land and in the way the selection legislation worked in the
landscape.

The second theme is the development of pastoral industry during this period. The
squatters moved into the arid regions of Westem NSW and the channel country of
Queensland. This land was a different environment[...]ly adaptable to grazing as the more grassed
areas of South—Eastern Australia and in the 1890s the combination of rabbits and
severe drought ruined many of the squatters in the arid region. The chapter con[...]undamentally changed by
selection and the effects of the depression and droughts of the 1890s.

Squatting and responsible government

“Responsible government” refers to the granting of constitutions to the States and the
establishment of parliamentary government by the United Kingdom as[...]he
British Government in London to the government of the states of Australia. Therefore
the tenure of the squatters was in the hands of the various state governments and their
electors, notably New South Wales and Victoria in which most of the squatting
heartland lay. However, the squatte[...]tation in the NSW Legislative Council.

The onset of responsible government was preceded by the separation of Victoria from
NSW in July 1851. Agitation for sep[...]nd soon there were complaints about the imbalance of revenue collected in
Port Phillip versus the expenditure of the Government on infrastructure there (Shaw
1996[...]in
the reconstituted blended Legislative Council of 1842 (five members from Port Phillip
and one from Melbourne) the difficulties of attending meetings in Sydney were
obvious from th[...]their discontent by electing Lord Grey,
Secretary of the Colonial Office, to the Council (Shaw 1996:246). Confirmation of

55 Indeed the Port Phillip Association ag[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (95)[...]ct (13 & 14
Vic c59) which allowed the separation of Victoria, the establishment of blended
Legislative Councils, extended the franchise to landholders who had six months
tenure of a freehold estate of £100 or occupation of a dwelling of £10 annual value or
leasehold or tenure of a pastoral run. The Colonies were empowered, with the consent
of the Queen in Council, to alter the electoral laws[...]d 1976:294-295). As Ward noted
this lefi “part of the constitutional future of the colonies in their own hands, subject
to royal assent” (1976:296).

The instigator of responsible government was the then Secretary of State for the
Colonies, the Duke of Newcastle.56 On the 5th August 1853, the Secretary of State for
the Colonies informed the Governors of NSW, Victoria, South Australia and Van
Diemen’s Land that the recent discoveries of gold had made it become urgent that
powers of self government be granted to the colonies. This[...]isions about their own affairs. The establishment of responsible government had
obvious issues for squatters who afier all were tenants of the Crown and therefore
more vulnerable to the whims of Government than owners of freehold land.

In NSW the Legislative Council had already acted with the Electoral Act of 1851
which was brought into the Legislative Council to implement the reforms of the
Australian Colonies Government Act. These ame[...](Ward 1981 :170-171). In 1852, a select committee of
the Legislative Council began to formulate a new[...]According to Ward,
the Council although in favour of responsible government did not want party
governm[...]oured by W.C. Wentworth was for the establishment of a hereditary aristocracy.58
Opposition to the pro[...]cil was great and was carried
over to the lobbies of the House of Commons where former liberal Council member
Rober[...]oreign affairs and defence powers for example and of course even today we still
have their wretched Qu[...]rgued that the main qualification for membership of this aristocracy should be the possession of a
huge Wellingtonian like nose, “pack our nominee chamber with noses of such amplitude and
consequently of such roaring stemutational power, that one and twenty of them might even

discharge (if need were) on the anniversary of a coronation, or what not, a very satisfactory and right
royal salute, to the public saving of much excellent gunpowder”.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (96)[...]surprisingly easy to overcome. As
the appointment of members was in the hands of the Crown as advised by the Premier
of the day, it proved feasible to threaten to “swa[...]er free selection. Furthermore, after the passing of the Election Act of
1858 (22 Vic.c. 20), the property qualification[...]undamentally weakened the

legislative power base of the squatters as it allowed anti-squatter forces[...], Geelong, and surrounding counties
which had 70% of the population had 8 of 20 seats (i. e. 40% of seats). However this
gerrymandering “produced a[...]an upper house to check the democratic
ambitions of the lower house. In Victoria, Wentworth’s suggestion of a nominated
Upper House or the creation of an aristocracy was rejected in favour of a property
qualification for electors. This entrenched the conservative nature of the Legislative
Council. “Time was to prove the good judgement of the Victorian founding fathers;
for, whereas by 1[...]already crying out in agony against the ministry
of the day ‘sweeping the streets of Sydney’ to ‘swamp’ the Legislative Council,[...]rty franchise where
voters had to hold £50 worth of property or equivalent. This was later broadened to
include holders of miner’s rights. The property qualification for[...]ed in 1855 (18 &19 Vic CS4, 18 &19 Vic c55).

One of the more useful acts of the first Victorian Parliament was to modify the[...]erty qualification for voters. This was the work of
political maverick Charles Gavan Duffy, an Ulster Catholic and advocate of the “Irish
cause” especially the Irish land q[...]ctoria his intellectual
vigour and the experience of having been a member of the House of Commons. Duffy
migrated to Victoria in 1856 (Sear[...]o abolish the property qualification for
members of the Assembly, which was passed in 1857. The legis[...]1857. A longer battle was fought over
the nature of electorates in 1858. Reform legislation was passe[...]d the
“diggings vote” to about half the value of votes in electorates outside the gold

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (97)94

diggings. The concern was that the interests of the diggers, due to their large numbers,
would swamp the legitimate interests of the rest of the Colony (Searle 19632282).

To conclude, both[...]rymandered so that it could obstruct the business of the Assembly. In
contrast, the Lower House in NSW[...]pointees. Importantly both States now had control of land
administration. This means that through Parl[...]ouses.

The Gold Rushes

The unexpected discovery of gold, first near Bathurst in New South Wales and[...]in 1851, turned both colonies upside down. Finds
of gold in Australia had been made from 1838 and gen[...]ut” (Blainey 196428) represent the general view of
government and the squatters that with the discovery of gold, social disorder would
follow. They were not far wrong as far as the existing order of pastoralism was
concerned.

William Forlonge, a p[...]rs,
Merchants, Squatters, all, all seem in a maze of bewilderment”. Forlonge claimed that
all his te[...]term F orlonge saw that the squatter’s monopoly of
land would prove to be of greater economic benefit to them than the gold f[...]Forlonge, 30 December 1851).

The initial impact of gold for some squatters was disastrous when gold[...]orth and the Ovens Valley) virtually
lost control of their runs as miners invaded and dug up their run[...]ect effects were digging up the ground, discharge of sediment into creeks,
dislocation of water supply into creeks and so on, rendering the[...]have become
diggers, although in the later period of company mining some, such as the

59 Whose[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (98)[...]Many squatters however, visited the diggings out of
curiosity.

It was fortunate for the government that so much of the goldfields were Crown Land
(1'. e. Crown Lan[...]irectly displaced by the Gold rushes.

The result of the gold rush for most squatters was a shortage of labour as labourers
deserted to the diggings. Despite the provisions of the Masters and Servants Act,
which bound servant[...]police
deserting to the diggings. In the absence of labourers, Squatters, Chinese, Aborigines,
Lunati[...]ed from 1851 to 1853
(1 961 : 199). The high cost of labour rekindled interest in fencing as one way of
controlling flocks and reducing the need for she[...]rticularly for runs near the diggings as
the sale ofof the available
labour. An obvious choice was to tu[...]ine managers had mislead
them as to the prospects of the mine. The Leannonth’s then lost even more m[...]the lists, possibly this was Robert McDonald
one of David Camerons executers, Searle says McDo[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (99)96

mostly held under squatting title and herein lies one of the underlying forces driving
the selection movement.

Thus by the 18605 two of the elements driving selection were in place: a l[...]to make laws

about land. At the same time, much of the available land was held by the squatters
unde[...]NSION INTO THE WEST

In Chapter 3, the discussion of the expansion of squatting was left with the squatters
looking at the land now known as the Western Division of NSW or the Western
Plains. Squatting expansion in[...]. The squatters were also faced with the prospect of taking up country
seemingly hostile to settlement[...]in the initial
squatter expansion from the limits of location. Faced with this squatters had to learn[...]lains was slow and further limited
by the effects of the 18403 depression that cut funds for pastoral expansion.

The geography of the Riverina and the Western Plains is dominated[...]rs,
the Murray (which forms the southern boundary of the Riverina), the Darling, the
Murrumbidgee and[...]were in the Pleistocene, the former main courses of
these rivers. In between these streams are broad alluvial plains devoid of trees and
water. The One-Tree Plain is between th[...]etween the Murrumbidgee and Billabong Creek. West of the Lachlan
is the Darling River which curves from the western side of the Darling Downs and the
New England Tablelands[...]it joins the Murray River at the
south west comer of NSW. A simplistic, but easy to understand approac[...]unsuitable
for squatting settlement.

Settlement of the western Riverina proceeded by following along[...]in 1840 and by 1845 Paika
just below the junction of the Murrumbidgee and the Lachlan had been establi[...]uatting runs. Settlement had reached the junction of the Darling and the Murray

by 1847 and squatting[...]ly taken up along the Darling to the present site
of Menindee (Shaw 1987216).

63 The One Tree[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (100)[...]ot seen as suitable for squatting due to the lack of water. Such areas
were largely unoccupied up to t[...]reek
resulted in one member, a Mr. Stewart, dying of thirst. This experience was typical of
exploring parties moving from river system to river system across the plains. The
geography of the rivers also helped exploration and settlement[...]d to do.

Langford-Srnith made a rough comparison of grazing licences issued in the
Murrumbidgee, Lach[...]claims in 1848. This
demonstrated the rapid pace of settlement in the Lachlan and Murrumbidgee distri[...]than 50% increase in both areas (1968:108). Much of
this land was along river frontages (of which the Murrumbidgee District had more d[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (101)[...]oving up the Darling and by 1851, the future site of Wilcannia
township was occupied (Shaw 1987: 14-15[...]y 1847 settlements were established on both banks of
the Barwon and on rivers flowing into it from th[...]cattle and
Heathcote points out the difficulties of moving cattle to market especially in the
drought[...]ng through the Warrego
country. A similar pattern of exploration and occupation was occurring further[...]squatters were exploring the country to
the north of the small towns of Menindee and Wilcannia in 1860-61 (Shaw 1987;20-[...]wing squatting interest in these areas Government officials in the form of
Commissioners for Crown Lands or surveyors moved[...]ering
as pastoral runs. Shaw’s detailed history of Yancannia Creek, a run to the north of the
Darling, shows that virtually as soon as the[...]urne (1987:39). Heathcote notes
a similar pattern of settlement in the Warrego in the period 1859-1865[...]up runs on the plains and lasted until the onset of drought in 1865. The

resulting severe shakeout led to a retreat of settlement to the river frontages
(1965:102-03).

Shaw quotes a detailed account of Yancannia Creek (then called Toorwotto) prepared[...]mbidgee. By 1841, settlement had reached the area of Lake Cargelligo (Cannon
1992:32). Settlement must[...]n the Lachlan from there and up from the
junction of the Murrumbidgee but no historical work seems to have been done to
outline the process of settlement. Freeman however notes that settlement at the
junction of the Lachlan and Murrumbidgee dates from 18[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (102)[...]ivision run, Yancannia Creek in 1867

The process of settlement seems similar in each case. Initial ex[...]attern expressed on the cadastral maps consisting of runs
orientated to the frontages of streams and then a series of blocks orientated to the
cardinal points o[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (103)Figure 4.3 Pattern of Runs on the Lachlan near Hillston

The settlement[...]ling river system was assisted by the
development of the riverboat traffic. In 1853, steam-powered ri[...]verboat trade actually centred
itself on the town of Echuca where transport to Melbourne was relativel[...]ments and was a suitable and
cost effective means of transporting a wool clip to the ports.

The conne[...], the capital, was reinforced by the
construction of the railway to Bendigo and then to Echuca (1864)[...]networks. This transportation network linked
much of the Riverina and Western NSW with Melbourne rather than Sydney the
capital of NSW. An investment network paralleled the transpo[...]uatters into squatting runs in those areas. It is of no surprise to
find the Premier of Victoria owning a pastoral station in the Riverina.

By the mid—18605, the pastoral occupation of South-Eastem Australia was largely
complete. The[...]hen reliable statistics allow some

understanding of the nature of the pastoral industry across South-Eastem Austral[...]situation as Australia having a sheep population of 16.7 million

1"

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (104)[...]equal sized flocks while Queensland had a
flock of 4.3 million or 25% of the total. In Victoria, the flocks were mainly i[...]ral and
Gippsland districts. In NSW, the majority of the sheep (65%) were in the Eastern
Division (which included the Monaro and New England). Some 33% of sheep were in
the Central Division mostly south of the Lachlan (Le. the Riverina). Only 5.8% of the
sheep were in the Western Division. In Queensland 80% of the sheep were in the
Darling Downs or on the Coast while a small number were in the bits of the Warrego
in Queensland 03utlin 1962284). In co[...]zing seem to be dominant in

the Central Division of NSW north of the Lachlan, in the Western Division and on the
c[...]65 and the associated “land debates” were one of the major
political issues of mid-to-late nineteenth-century Australian politic[...]engaged in agriculture. While the initial period of the land debates
from the 1850s to the mid-18605 concerned the process of establishing selection, in
the remaining period, the debate revolved around the effectiveness of the various
selection acts in achieving the aims of putting “bona fide” small farmers onto the l[...]- “the yeoman myth” and the varying attempts of government to translate
the ideology to physical[...]ation.

The "Yeoman Myth" was based on the notion of the small farmer as the basic social
and economic[...]at Agincourt. Lake has commented "the
invocation of the yeoman ideal grow out of an idealised memory of England. There is
some irony in the fact that Aus[...]other
rural workers. They were seen as the heart of England and in Australia, the
establishment of the small farmers as yeomen was seen as having a[...]ement came to be used which referred to an aspect of selection in which the government resumed
pastora[...]mplementing the “Yeoman Myth”. Thus, the aims of selection
persisted for over a century.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (105)[...]Clark seems to have seen selection as an outcome of the grth of
the bourgeoisie, again as a result of the gold rush, and the general push for equality[...]have
followed this route although the involvement of some reformers in the Chartist
movement has been[...]d a challenge to the whole historiographic notion of
selection by arguing that the Robertson Land Acts[...]on movement is seen in Bakers article as an agent
of the rising middle class. There are shades of similar arguments about the rise ofof the middle class in the selection movement, it is[...]owever he seems to ignore the middle class nature of the squattocracy.

What is not clear in these exp[...]been discussed is Victorian-era culture. At heart of the yeoman myth is
the concept of domesticity. What is more domestic than the ideal of the home with the
woman hard at work looking afte[...]ily
by his hard work. The yeoman myth is the cult of domesticity as applied to an
idealised conception of the selector and the Australian landscape. Select[...]is not some yearning for a fading England but one of the central “Victorian values”
that formed the culture of the time. This helps explain why there is evident[...]ctors (and
indeed were playing out their own form of domesticity as expressed in squatter’s
respecta[...]the Victorian goldfields has shown that the cult of domesticity
was well entrenched in Australian soc[...]eal stands in opposition to the masculine freedom of the bush that
was realised in life on the goldfi[...]tension this argument would also apply to aspects of early squatting (c/f Ferry 1999).

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (106)[...]ideal involved in its rural application some form of farm, a difficult prospect
when most of the land was held by the squatters.

The difficu[...]selection. This would spell the ruin and failure of their domestic
aims and squatters acted to oppose[...]society struggling to live out the
same ideology of domesticity. This explains why explanations in cl[...]xample by passing the legislation); they approved of the principle but not its
practice.

It is import[...]is not surprising given the international
spread of the cult of domesticity. Agitation for selection began in 1853 but it was not
until the end of the 1850s that political campaigns for universal[...]ll
1970:64).

Perhaps the most interesting aspect of the rhetoric of selection was its divorce from
the physical landscape. The successes of any farming or grazing movement must rely
on the environment for the creation of wealth. Thus, the success of selection was
dependent on the physical features of the landscape in which it occurred. Yet, little
a[...]nvironmental conditions. Similarly, the economics of small farming
were barely considered. In 1860, th[...]all producers could sell produce into the markets of the large towns and
export to the United Kingdom.[...]elect at all but it seems clear that the ideology of domesticity -
“a vote, a rifle and a farm was[...]:296-300) — seemed to override
the practicality of actually making a life.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (107)[...]ing to allow selection on Crown Land. The process of translation was
contested by the squatters both in Parliament and in the country where the application
of the legislation was contested by a variety of means. The legislation and its working
within a p[...]it is really
impossible to understand the process of selection and the squatting response without a
detailed explanation of the legislation that implemented the ideals of selection. In this
thesis, the discussion has foc[...]rliaments covering the squatter
heartlands, those of New South Wales and Victoria.68

NSW Selection Acts

Central to the passing of the NSW Land Laws and their subsequent history wa[...]bertson is often described as being a
squatter or of squatter origin but his method of landholding suggests that he was not.
Robertson s[...]05 for the
“universal” franchise and equality of electorates and in opposing Wentworth’s
proposa[...]ging was Robertson’s support for selection. One
of his earliest statements on the question was given[...]slative Council’s Select
Committee on the State of Agriculture on 31St August 1855. In a written submission
he claimed that the failure of agriculture to develop in NSW was caused by the c[...]ent policy, which mitigated against the formation of small holdings.
Robertson first pointed out the[...]owing on his wool crop or cattle
through the Lien of Wool Act and the Lien on Stock Act the farmers co[...]proposal allowing
any person to enter on 80 acres of waste land before survey and pay the upset price[...]it was natural for people to want their own piece of land and not to
spend their lives making improvements to the land of others. In support of his

(’8 A slightly greater emphasis is given t[...]y Powell (1967, 1970). Roberts
1968 gives details of selection in other states. .

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (108)[...]lved in the selection movement. This was a period of political agitation for
land reform, which Baker[...]roducing land
legislation. Following the election of 1859 Robertson introduced three lands acts to do
with sales, occupation, and leases of Crown Land.69 The latter was defeated and the
ens[...]he
ensuing election in December 1860 on the issue of land laws. In January 1861,
Robertson resigned th[...]the first dealt with free selection and
the sale of Crown Land, the second with occupation of Crown Lands by the squatters
and others (such as[...]ds Alienation Act (1861) 25 Vic oi, the principle of selection
without survey was established. Any person (or their agent) could select fiom 40 to
320 acres72 of Crown Land prior to survey in areas other than to[...]tions) by tendering a written application on
Land Office day (Thursday) for land between 40 and 320 acres. The selector could
only make one conditional purchase of up to 320 acres but could make additional

conditional purchase up to the total of 320 acres if frontage conditions were not
exceede[...]was Secretary for Lands and he began the process of tightening the screws on the
squatters by limiting the right of pre-emptive purchase to 640 acres (tie. a square[...]uncil could be used to facilitate large purchases of land so these restrictions were brought in by
reg[...]Files No 85/ 15680
(AONSW Ref 10/3642 for details of this).

70 It should be noted that Parliament at[...]not have the formal party and factional structure of
the 20th century.

7' Ie. appoint as many members[...]square mile or 790.72 ha. In discussing the size of selections and runs it is easier to work i[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (109)106

The land was sold at a fixed price of £1 per acre, 25% to be paid on registering, the[...]n the land for
one year (beginning within a month of selection) and improvements of not less than
£1 per acre were made. At the end of the three years the purchaser or alienee (that is[...]pay 5% interest on the amount owing at the start of each year.74 The
alternative way of purchasing land was through auction of surveyed blocks or lapsed
conditional purchases.[...]ry 1858 were exempt from sale during the currency of the lease. This
allowed existing squatters to rem[...]ion was allowed on
these leases and as each piece of land was sold the rent progressively reduced.

The squatters retained a limited pre-emptive right of 640 acres for every block of 25
square miles (i. e. 16,000 acres) for old leas[...]or land to be sold without competition at a value
of no less than £1 per acre in consideration of improvements made on it.

Land was to be measured[...]had to be square. This rule determined the shape of much of
NSW and contrasted with the use of natural features for squatting run boundaries.

In reviewing the operation of the 1861 Act during his second reading speech for[...]conceived by the author. . .in
the best interests of the country. . .It was framed for honest men, not[...]ebates 102327). Farrell identified the main evil of free
selection as “dummyism”.

“Dummying” was the selection of land by an individual with the intention of selling
or transferring it to a squatter (or some[...]quently the dummy

73 This provision was a legacy of the tardiness of the Surveyor Generals Department in actually
surv[...]ector could simply pay off the
interest as a form of rent yet have security of tenure. Some of the portions selected on the
Cuppacumbalong run were held in this way, for example portion 28 Parish of Tharwa was selected in
1868 and the title was finally issued on completion of payment in 1920 after a period of 52 years.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (110)[...]nly difficulty being
conforming to the condition of residence. Dummying took two forms, the selection of
land by squatter’s associates, relatives or agents and the speculative selection of land
by individuals (1'. e. non bona fide selectors) in the hope of forcing the squatter to buy
them out. There is no[...]1988:64); Hancock (1972:98-102) all give examples of dummying. One of the main
aims of the 1875 amendments to the Lands Acts was to eliminate dummying.

“Peacocking,” another evil of free selection, was the selection or purchase of key
areas of land such as waterholes, river frontages and so on so as to prevent selection
on other areas of the run. By careful exercise of pre-emptive rights, improvement and
purchase rights the squatter could, for example, select the best parts of the run.75 An
example of peacocking can be seen on the Wybray run where the leaseholders, the
Yeoman Brothers, constructed a number of bores and tanks in the back country. These
were t[...]4.4). The effect was to
peacock the only sources of water in the back country thus securing the run f[...]cape in detail.

The third major problem was that of Reserves. Under the Acts, land could be reserved[...]idered to be for the public good. Under Section 4 of the Crown Lands
Alienation Act (1861) land could[...]t remove the land from the lease. Under Section 5 of
Crown Lands Alienation Act (1861), land required[...]from sale could
be made to prevent total monopoly of water frontages and to allow movement from
the back blocks to permanent sources of water. This seems on the face of it to be good
public policy and was instigated in the Lands Department in 1861 following the
passing of the Land Acts (Robertson in Select Committee on R[...]5233).
From Robertson’s evidence, consideration of reserves was based not only on the
process of alienation but also to prevent squatters from lea[...]only,
knowing that this would prevent the leasing of the backblocks due to lack of water

(i. e. peacocking the run).

75 The expression Peacocking refers to the picking the eyes out of the run, rather like a bird picks at
grain[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (111)However, the practice of creating the Reserves was a major issue. Local re[...]ly
gazetted. A squatter by initiating the process of reserving land could effectively
quarantine large areas of his run from selection. In the Riverina at least[...]48-150, Gammage 1986:62-64).

The actual evidence of Departmental practice at the time was given to th[...]serves in circular form but that the sheer volume of
applications, divided responsibility in the Depar[...]eing open to selection in 1865 (due to the expiry
of the leases under the Orders in Council) resulted in chaos rather than corruption. A
large number of Reserves were hastily gazetted. Neither Buxton no[...]he reserve files in order to verify their claims of corruption and so
drew heavily upon the evidence[...]e select
committee did not seem to find evidence of corruption although its activities were
curtailed[...].

The biggest problem for selectors was the lack ofof the detail of Reserve
formation is there for historians to use.

A summary of all the various grievances is in the evidence of the Select Committee on
the Administration of the Land Law (New South Wales, Legislative Assemb[...]3-74). The committee took evidence from a variety of sources, squatters,
selectors and officials, which was produced in three progress reports. This was by no
means a comprehensive coverage of NSW as the Committee took evidence from the
administrators in Sydney but only evidence of selection practice in the Riverina and
one witnes[...]valuate selection without sufficient questioning of whether the Riverina
was a typical case or not.[...]marised the 1861 Act.

7° O'Shanassy was Premier of Victoria three times and was Premier when[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (112)“My opinion is that the Act of 1861 is a very good one if carried out in its
int[...]runs the
squatters were forced by the provisions of the act to undertake illegal activities that
were[...]O’Shannassy, as one might expect, was critical of the NSW Acts as being “wrong in
principle”, the principle being the Wakefieldian one of concentration of settlement.
O’Shannassy preferred settlement in[...]on his
run.

Everyone was united on the failings of the Lands Department. Squatters and selectors
gave evidence of the failure of Lands Agents (who were usually Clerks of Court and
had other duties) and the Lands Departm[...]selection and
other applications. Delays and lack of communication often seems to have resulted in
sel[...]ould be described as corruption or
bias in favour of the squatter. This is not to say that forms of corruption were not
apparent but little hard evidence was offered.

A fundamental problem was a lack of accurate maps although as Surveyor General
Philli[...]noted in his evidence, chiefly the whole concept of selection
prior to survey precluded there being up-to-date maps of selections (Surveyor
General, Phillip Francis Ada[...]und relating to the geoid, as there was no
system of triangulation in New South Wales at that time. Mo[...]e point over time not to mention
obvious problems of compass accuracy in the field. Distances were me[...]ry for Lands, in evidence commented “Our system of survey is a sort of
rule of thumb business, which the Colony has tolerated, but it does not admit of
accuracy in maps” (Fitzpatrick in New South Wal[...]:6). Adams added in his evidence that the problem of inaccurate maps added to by
the poor description of land to be selected by applicants (Surveyor Gener[...]nse was too much for

77 In some cases the survey of a parish began with the survey of the first portion — a rectangle on a
blank map[...]with reference to this point, thus a whole chain
of inaccuracies built up. Trying to then plac[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (113)[...]tion). O’Shannassy, despite his favourable view of the Lands
Department admitted that he relied on e[...]tive
Assembly 1873-74: 1 7).

The selectors point of view was put by A. Jameson, a selector from Denil[...]ld in November 1873. Jameson
pointed out the lack of information from the Lands Agent at Deniliquin ab[...]rrupt) but Jameson would not
commit himself. Part of the difficulty was the lack of up-to-date information. The
main vehicle for info[...]closer to Melbourne). Mayger referred to the case of a selector Rose
being allowed to select on a rese[...]selections.

Squatters reportedly hung around the office on Lands Day with vague applications
either by themselves or dummy (some of which nobody ever saw) and lodged them
when bona[...]volunteer for the colonial forces. The vagueness of the land described
allowed the squatter to use th[...]ail selection or peacock their run.

The evidence of James Litchfield fiom the Monaro gave further evidence of selection
practices. Litchfield, although in favour of selection, was very critical of the limitation
on conditional purchases to 320 ac[...]heir residence but in 1872 a more rigorous policy of
verifying residency had been introduced leading t[...]ect his grass rights (i. e. his conditional lease of three
times the area of his conditional purchase provided the land was av[...]ther than
agriculture. Litchfield was an example of a selector, although he held an estate of

some 20,000 acres and was supported by William B[...]3-96).

A final problem from the squatters point of view were the Land Sharks who selected
choice area of land with the aim of forcing the squatter to buy them out. This[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (114)[...]t Act (1875, 39 Vic c13) was the first amendment of the
Lands Acts and implemented the results of the Select committee’s inquiry. The Act
raised the maximum area of land able to be selected to 640 acres. The amendm[...]nal problems, which were used to evade the
intent of the Land Acts. These included defining “person[...]g someone over 16
years old, defining the nature of improvements and their value, making sure that
purchasers were not agents of someone else (i. e. dummying) and so on. A subseq[...]pass
(Martin 1962:586-588).

Following the defeat of the Robertson government in the elections of January 1883
the new Stuart government instigated[...]ation.
Hancock comments that “three generations of Australian historians repeated the
Morris-Ranken version of the free selection story. At last, in the mid-196[...]not the Royal Commissioners had told a true story
of free selection” (Hancock,1972:91). Buxton was the historian referred to by
Hancock. In his study of the Riverina, he noted (and anyone with any experience of
the political process would note) that the Morris[...]es.

Morris-Ranken summarised the basic principle of the Lands Acts as “to substitute
large numbers of yeoman farmers for the squatter”, the policy being to “offer to sale
to one class of occupants the same land which was simultaneously[...]tenures
simultaneously by providing “the means of defence against and retaliation upon the
selectors who ventured to exercise their legitimate rights of encroachment and
appropriation [of pastoral runs]” (1883215). Morris-Ranken were not against selection,

there is no questioning of the “yeoman myth”, rather they question the workings of
the Lands Acts in achieving that goal.

They bega[...]eteen counties (1'. e. the land within the limits
of location), much of which was seen as inferior land with some 51% uno[...]encircling the Cumberland Plain and forming part of the Great Dividing Range.

78 The authors were Au[...]report was published in the Votes and Proceedings of the Legislative
Assembly omitting the bulky but valuable individual testimony of previous reports.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (115)[...]having successfully worked in with the old system of grants
without much trouble, the main problem identified being how to dispose of the
inferior land.

The Intermediate district was[...]e Western
district and encompassed a wide variety of lands and environments. Morris-Ranken
summarised the characteristics of land holdings in the Intermediate Districts as
fo[...]able shows that only a comparatively small amount of land has been actually
alienated (i. e. sold) and that 42% of land was still held as Pastoral Leases (i.e.
squa[...]nd Alienated in the Intermediate District

Method of alienating Area (acres) % of total alienated
land land

Conditional Purchase 12 114 082 48.15%

by Auction 9 260 274 36.81%

In Virtue of Improvements 1 954 812 7.77%
Volunteer Land Order[...]lienated 25 156 612

The table confirms a number of points made earlier. Firstly, the squatters did not
indulge in massive purchases of land before selection, only 2% overall of the
Intermediate District was sold before 1862. S[...]ir purchases. However, this represented only 14 % of the overall land holding in
the Intermedia[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (116)Morris-Ranken examined settlement in sub-divisions of the Intermediate area and
concluded that for Mona[...]other areas was characterised by the development of a number
of larger freehold estates despite a large number of actual conditional purchases.

In considering Division III, basically land to the west of the Barwon, Bogan and
Lachlan rivers, Morris-Ranken considered that the lack of rainfall protected Crown
leases from invasion by[...]ecting to extort the pastoralists.
Less than 0.5% of the land had been selected as conditional purchases of which
Morris-Ranken claim “two-thirds are dummi[...]227).

Morris-Ranken concluded that the main area of conflict was in the intermediate
districts where “the personal virtues of veracity and honourable dealing have been
tarnished by the daily habit of intrigue, the practice of evading the law, and by
declarations in defiance of fact universally made” (1883:29). In short, sel[...]ms to be realised on the ground, a certain amount of illegal practices had to
occur, creating a problem of moral decay for squatters and selectors alike.

The actual success of selection was seen as obscured by the shroud of departmental
dealings, as there were no f1 gures[...]-Ranken developed their
own measure, the creation of small holdings (40 to 1000 acres) which they argue
shows that in Division II the proportion of small holdings created (0.01%) is less than
in th[...]ality land. At the same time 80
freehold holdings of 40,000 acres and upward were created. Selection w[...]er in a footnote to
their report to the Secretary of the Lands Department, James F arnell noted, “to[...]orris and Ranken had an'ived from a consideration of the evidence taken by
them. As this was not any part of the duties with the performance of which they were
charged, that portion of the Report has not been accepted and consequently[...]ry letter).

Morris-Ranken noted the desirability of harrnonising all the various administrative
divis[...]ep. They also estimated approximate minimum sizes
of land suitable for homesteads as 2,560 acres for D[...]). They also
tentatively point out the advantages of some form of survey before selection
(1883:35). Overall[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (117)114

realised that the process of debating and passing the act would take over a ye[...]own Lands Act 1884 (48 Vic c.18) and a
new system of land administration was installed while retaining the principle of free
selection before survey. Firstly, the Act di[...]This effectively decentralised the administration of the Lands Act to local areas
allowing local consi[...]. The LLBs also gave the selector the
opportunity of appealing decisions without having to go the Supr[...]onal purchase was still allowed with nine classes of land being exempted
(notable exemptions were towns, mining areas and the whole of the Western
Division). Only one conditional purch[...]esidence. Improvements were expressed in the form of fencing in good
order.

Squatters runs (defined[...]nal purchases could not be made,
Homestead Leases of between 10 240 acres and 5 760 acres could be made within the
resumed areas. These were a form of conditional purchase in that they aimed to allow[...]he legislation aimed at dealing with the problems of selection, firstly by reducing the
level of conflict by giving squatters some security in th[...]that the environment played a part in the success of selection and
developed a crude response to this by enlarging the size of selection as the carrying
capacity of the land declined. In the Western Division, the pointlessness of small
selection was recognised but a form of small selection was recognised by the
introduction of Homestead Leases. The legislation also forced the rapid surveying of
squatting runs (and in some cases parishes[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (118)115

The Crown Lands Act 1884 was followed by series of five amendments to rectify
problems that should have been obvious during the passage of the bill. For example
the Crown Lands Amendment A[...]ent debate in July 1888 at least
five MLAs spoke of the need to urgently modify the fencing requirements of the 1884
act to allow other improvements to be su[...]tensive amendment was made in the Crown Lands Act of 1889 (53
Vic c21). The embedment firstly establi[...]be taken. Other
amendments clarified the rights of mortgagees to select land through the mortgagors,
the rights of women, determined that conflicting applications[...]1895 the Government introduced a major amendment of the Lands Act to a
chorus of dismay by members who remembered the year or more the 1884 Act took to
pass. In introducing the Lands Act ofof
land since 1861 to settle only an additional 199, 000 in the country districts... in 1861
the average size of a holding was 280 acres, but in 1893 the average size of a holding
was 726 acres” (N SW Parliamentary De[...]failure was based on six principles:

i. Respect of legal and vested rights.
ii. To give more encouragement to occupiers of Crown Lands.
iii. That the fruits of a tenant’s industry are his property.
iv. Classifications of land so as to prevent conflicts and rivalries.
v[...]rs.

“But chief above all I recognise the right of every man by virtue ofof the
nineteenth century.

Selection in Vict[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (119)[...], a farm and a rifle’) in September 1860 (Sale of
Crown Lands Act 23 Vic No 117). The details of the politics behind the passing of this

legislation have been discussed by Searle (1963:296-300) and illustrate the strength of
the Legislative Council in Victoria to obstruct and delay legislation.

The Act established two classes of land “special” — land within one mile of property
purchased before the legislation; or close to a township of at least 250 inhabitants; or
along existing lines of communication or water frontages. This special land was to be
auctioned at an upset price of £1 per acre, 25% ofof 80-640
acres,82 each to be subdivided into two equal portions. One of these portions could be
purchased at £1 per acre[...]1862 report claims that in the first six months of
1860 a total of 442, 643 acres of Crown Land was alienated, mostly in the Western
district (Powell 1967295). The provisions of the Act were easily evaded. Careful
purchases all[...]lect. With dummies the
restrictions on the amount of land selected was avoided. Importantly dummies co[...]to blocks before sale. This
limited the operation ofof the available land had been sold to squatters
(Powell 1970:83-84) and cites examples of larger squatters such as Neil Black who
bought 10[...]the Manifolds who bought 60,000 acres as
examples of squatters evading the Acts intent. However this w[...]in selectors helped by some administrative slight of hand to allow selection
on commons and through oc[...]ttempt at selection legislation was the Duffy Act of 1862 (An Act to
consolidate and amend the laws elating to the sale and occupation of Crown Lands 25
Vic c145) put forward by Gavan Duffy a well known supporter of selection. Earlier in
the debates on selection, Duffy argued for assessment of land quality before opening
areas for selection.[...]n the O’Shanassy

82 The Act required the Board of Land and Works to survey three million acres within twelve months of
the Act’s passing.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (120)[...]s in the Lands Department
drawing upon the advice of officials to develop a map of ten million acres that he
proposed to open for se[...]re to be opened for selection
within three months of the passing of the Act, the balance being brought into play so
t[...]s were available continuously.

From the millions of acres the Board of Land and Works was supposed to survey,
“Agricultural Areas” containing allotments of between 640 acres and 40 acres
(depending on the nature of the land) each allotment being divided equally, w[...]c c145 Part II, Section 12 to 14).

Under Part II of the Act, a selector could apply to purchase the whole allotment at the
price of £1 per acre, or purchase one moiety and rent the[...]he lease for
the moiety was for 8 years at a rent of 2/6 per acre payable in advance. If two
applicati[...]e lot were received on the same day then the Land Officer
shall determine by lot which has priority. Selections were limited to 640 acres of land
per year and no infants, married women or no[...]tor was obliged to bring into cultivation a tenth of the land within a year of

selection, erect a habitable dwelling, or enclos[...]stantial
fence (25 Vic c145 Part II).

The system of auctioning Crown Lands continued but was excluded[...]. This provision was to encourage the
development of industry by making land available on easy terms.[...]evaded. The squatters’ main
tactic was the use of agents and dummies who would select land and then sell it on to
the squatters. The loose wording of the legislation provided many loopholes. In
parti[...]lector applied for land the squatter had the rest of the day to make
conflicting applications, all of which would be in the ballot. The residential cla[...]were moved onto each lot as required.
The process of evasion was so gross that it even began to effect[...]rupt practices he was involved with “ I am sick
ofof “Agricultural Areas” in the Duffy Act was con[...]ade in person, agents not being allowed. In cases of
conflicting applications for the same allotment[...]was reduced from the same day to within one hour of the first selection.

Lease of an allotment was for a term of seven years for a rent of 2/- per annum per
acre subject to the foll[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (121)[...]e for three years plus improvements to the

value ofof improvements.

Leases were limited to 640 acres p[...]ummying.

Section 31 presented the interpretation of “allotment” which limited the size of
allotments and frontage, to under a mile of frontage along any “lake, lagoon, river,
stream[...]ing “cultivation, fencing, clearing or draining of
an allotment and the making of dams, wells or reservoirs or of a habitable dwelling or
farm or other buildings upon and permanently attached to the soil of such allotment".

The problem of dummying was addressed by the Grant acts of 1865 and 1869 where
an emphasis was placed on the[...]ive Council.

The Second Grant Act, the Lands Act of 1869, has been described by Roberts as
perhaps th[...]could apply for a license to occupy an
allotment of land not exceeding 320 acres. The licence was iss[...]d substantial fence within two years, cultivation of one in ten
acres and to make improvements of £1 per acre. At the end of three years, the selector
could apply for a Crown[...].

The Second Grant Act prevented the building up of large estates, indeed it halved the
amount of land available for selection. This is somewhat paradoxical given that the
small size of holdings was generally held to be a primary cause of the failure of
selectors. Powell in discussing this, notes that the Bill originally provided for
selections of up to 640 acres, but from his reading of the Parliamentary Debates, he
discerns that the Parliamentarians suffered from a “resurgence of the traditional view
of the place of the ‘yeoman’. No legislation could immediately produce such a class.
It must create itself by dint of sacrifice and ‘honest toil’, but founded on[...]provided by the state” (Powell 1970:154).

Most of the remaining agricultural land in Victori[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (122)[...]report emphasised the poor economic circumstances of the selector especially in
light of a severe drought on the northern and western plains from 1876 to 1879. The
results of the initial investigations emphasised the financial difficulties of framers and

following the publication of an interim report in 1878, an amending act was pa[...]he Land Act 1878 (42 Vic c634) doubled the period of the licence and halved the
rent per acre to 1/-. The conditions of improvement were all varied to reduce cost and
ex[...]ognised the practice, common in NSW and Victoria, of
selectors hiring a seasonal work force, typically[...]for agriculture84 and as Powell notes this aspect of the
report allowed many myths about areas of Victoria to be dispelled and selection
policy fra[...]ade minor amendments and continued the provisions of the Grant Act.
The next legislative foray in 1883[...]e there were in effect none to abolish. The
State of Victoria then moved on to various schemes to esta[...]is another sorry tale.

The success or otherwise of selection

In terms of the squatting landscape, the selection movement forced a pattern of small
allotments over the countryside. Even if ul[...]ed by them. This pattern relates to the processes of
selection and is an outcome the squatter/selector[...], to understand a squatting
landscape, the detail of the various Land Acts needs to be understood as t[...]requirement on the

33 This is an edited version of the minutes of Evidence taken before the Royal Commission to inquire
into the progress of settlement under the Land Act 1869.

8‘[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (123)120

selector (irrespective of who the selector was) to “improve” the land f[...]ring, fencing, ring-barking, damming and draining of land creating a changed
landscape. The degree of change and its timing is an outcome of the squatter/selector
interaction in a particular[...]il a few years ago the general historical opinion of the selection movement was
that the movement was[...]failure, “a squatting triumph in the best part of the colony” (1968: 242)
and that so called safe[...]failure, rectified to
some degree by the success of the Grant Acts (19681254). Nevertheless, such a broad
judgement was made in the absence of detailed studies of specific squatting runs in
local areas and relied too much on the evidence of various parliamentary reports.

The conclusions of historians in recent years, was that in some areas free selection
worked in achieving the aim of establishing small bona fide farmers. Feny, for[...]hat in some areas around Armidale there was a mix of free selectors
(1999:161-169). Some selectors were established on good agricultural land on parts of
Saumarez run near Annidale, others had establishe[...]ry
comments that important factors in the success of selecting was some amount of
capital as well as the productive capacity of the land, “farming expectations were
often unre[...]nts a similar story for the Monaro where the case of James
Litchfield is presented, although he may be an exception as he accumulated an estate

of 20,000 acres as a selector. Other successful sele[...]azing
runs (1972:92-96).

In the Western district of Victoria, Powell points to selectors “developing
considerable ingenuity in developing intricate network of intra-family and inter-
family co-operation which had the effect of producing larger and better serviced
operating units” (Powell 1996:87). Co-operation allowed shortcomings of capital to
be overcome and was important in succe[...]In the Riverina, probably the most prominent area of selector/squatter conflict, the
success of selection was mixed. Buxton has argued against th[...]ful selectors and noted that
following the advent of rail connections to the Narrandera region, there[...]d-18705 (1988:66-73). A key factor
in the success of selecting was the access to markets for agricultu[...]ch as
wheat86 and this was aided by the expansion of the railway network during the 1870s
and 1[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (124)[...]r. Thus, there is a case to argue for the success of
selection.

This is not to say that squatters did not use the various land acts to transfer much of
their leased land into freehold land at a price a[...]ted into
freehold estates, but often at the price ofof selection across South-
Eastem Australia. In some[...]other selectors prospered. The
few local studies of selection point to the role of the environment and the rural
economy as well as the nature of an individual selector and family in determining
success or otherwise of selection. These were factors often ignored by th[...]he capital cities who tended to blame the failure of the “yeoman myth” on the
Lands Acts and their[...]1884
Crown Lands Act in NSW. Overall the history of squatting and selecting would be
enhanced by more detailed studies of specific areas, taking into account
environmenta[...]E PASTORAL ECONOMY

The discussion on the history of selection has been allowed to run its course to t[...]ng in the pastoral economy that shaped the
nature of squatting. There were two basic changes, firstly there was an overall change
in the amount of investment in the pastoral industry and there was[...]in dairying.

The change in land use was a result of declining wheat yields in the coastal regions
due to the onset of rust in the 18605 and a subsequent moving of the “wheat frontier”
into drier areas. These were on the western edge of the Settled Districts in NSW
around Bathurst and[...]veloped as a major industry after the development of the
separator in the late 18705 and refrigeration[...]farmers turned to
dairying as an alternative form of grazing (Peel 1974).

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (125)Butlin has discussed the development of capital spending and traced the course of
pastoral investment” from 1860 to 1890 (1962b,[...]in notes that from the 18605 until 1871 the level of pastoral investment
was relatively modest. “In fact, with the exception of the two years 1868 and 1870 the

level of new pastoral investment tended to decline throughout most of the sixties
(1962b:325).

From 1871, there was a[...]to 1877 when there was an extremely rapid period of investment. Butlin argues that
most of this investment was in fencing rather than in oth[...]pools. “Fencing was the great rural achievement of the decade” (Butlin
1962b:331). Butlin’s second phase of investment was a short boom and a sharp slump
in 1880-82 followed by a third phase of growth until a peak in 1892. Both these two
phases were marked by equipment of pastoral stations by pioneers and speculators
anxious to make a profit on the back of a high wool price and an expansion of grazing
into the drier areas. This form of capital formation placed more emphasis on water
c[...]see how this trend is related to the development of squatting landscapes.
Although Butlin sees fencing as the great achievement of the 18705, fencing of
squatting runs (beyond fencing of cultivation paddocks and stock yards) began in th[...]ters increased their freehold land and as a means of
reducing scab in sheep.88 Kiddle argues that alth[...]b and it also allowed the
reduction in the number of shepherds (1962: 199-200). This became important[...]ire fencing was introduced. However the abundance of igneous
surface stone in the Western District als[...]ncing or runs by dry stone walls a
defining part of the cultural landscape in the Western District an[...]Yanco Creek from the
Murrumbidgee. The excavation of the canal, which was of dubious success, began in

87 Butlin defines this as the value in current prices of the additions to durable physical assets other th[...]ble amount.

88 Scab is a parasite and separation of an infected flock from a “clean” one helped prevent the spread of
the disease.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (126)[...]raised by assessing the squatters along
the banks of Yanco Creek. A similar scheme to improve the Will[...]estment in fencing was coupled by the development of better sheep breeds,
notable by the Peppin family[...]861. The Peppins
combined the basic merino sheep (of mixed origins) with improved Rambouillet
Merinos[...]od wool covering. This was achieved with the help of
Thomas Shaw, his son Jonathan Shaw and Thomas Cun[...]eppin merino was ideal for use in the dry climate of the Riverina and the
Western Division.

Squatters[...]an increase
in sheep numbers; an intensification of grazing which was helped by relatively good
seaso[...]uction.

Linking the runs were transport networks of riverboats, railways, and roads. The
riverboats s[...]ay-Darling system. Railways became
from the 1870s of increasing importance especially as railways from[...]lished throughout NSW
to allow the legal movement of stock across squatting runs. These were supported[...]were used by pastoralists in droughts as sources of feed and large mobs of
sheep and cattle were sent on the road to see wha[...]listed the physical assets (apart from livestock) of a typical station of the
18905 as an example of the capital investment that a well-equipped sheep[...]Robert Campbell & Co. to help
improve the quality of the wool clip. His son. also Thomas Shaw, was a w[...]ia and on Yancannia Creek in the Western Division of NSW.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (127)ii) Outbuildings of kitchen, store, blacksmith’s shop, shearing and[...]s)

B) Fences

i) Stockyards

ii) Boundary fences of posts and wire or of posts, rails and wire
C) Water conservation

i) D[...]onservation which increased the carrying capacity of arid lands
into which the pastoral industry was expanding.90 As well, the increased prevalence of
rabbits in the late 18805 resulted in the need to invest in wire net fencing as some
measure of control. The expansion into the arid areas was also helped by “a
remarkable run of highly favourable climatic conditions” from the[...]Holding (No 612, Central District) is an example of a pastoral
station of the late 18805. The Parnell family based at Maitl[...]this to
sheep in 1884 following their experience of the 1877—78 drought. Sheep were seen as
requiring less water than cattle. The division of the holding into Resumed and
Leasehold areas resulted in an evaluation of the land in 1887 and this evidence gives a
snapsh[...]was bordered on the
west by Marra Creek. A series of water reserves all created in 1882 dominate the m[...]Butlin notes the source material on the economics of individual stations is very limited, he drew
on the information from the archives of the large pastoral financing companies which too[...]nal run was
Wyabray.

92 Wybray was about a third of the size of Willandra Run (347, 201 acres) one of the biggest runs and
three times the size of Cuppacumbalong (48,917 acres) studied in C[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (128)[...]s frontage on the west to Mara creek and a series of selections and
a water reserve protect the Yeoman[...]re 4.4 which dates to 1901 but shows more details of the
improvements than earlier plans). Away from the creek on the eastern side of the runs
and on the Back runs, Back Willoi Back U[...]de in the leasehold area, all were made in virtue of
improvement of building the tanks."3 These improvements, as well[...]nt £6000 on water improvements

The appraisement of the leasehold area of Wyabray Pastoral Holding was undertaken
by the Bo[...]il 1887. The improvements listed by the Inspector of Runs,

Edward Burton Lytton Dickens94 were

Cuddi[...]Crown Land
12’deep on Crown Land

93 Among one of the tanks is Cuddie Springs, which was dug in 187[...]mportant Pleistocene Aboriginal site.

94 The son of Charles Dickens.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (129)of Wyabray Pastoral Holding, 1901

Two wells were lo[...]612 Central

Division, SRNSW 3/5250

The evidence of John Able Yeomans, the managing partner of Wyabray and an

accompanying letter by W. R Yeomans (Folio 87/5253), emphasised the difficulties of
Wyabray being a viable property without considera[...]fodder. As well the distance to markets and cost of

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (130)[...]abbits are fast
approaching the run". The pattern of settlement is one of constructing water
conservation facilities such a[...]unctional in form with only
the merest suggestion of a garden or any but the barest of improvements (see Figure
4.5). This relates to th[...]omestead
than prudence would allow.

This picture of the plain manager’s house is very differ[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (131)[...]d intensifying in western NSW a remarkable period of homestead
construction was occurring in Victoria.[...]the 1840s and 1850s but “in a five year burst of homestead redevelopment
the powerful long establi[...]ies were to transform the architectural
character of western Victoria (Willingham 1984:74). This invol[...]ects involved, the precise
reasons for this burst of construction remain obscure save for comments tha[...]ould it be that the homestead building was a form of celebration
of the squatters’ success in fending of the selectors? Certainly there is nothing on the
Western District scale of housing to be found in the Riverina although Free[...]s to protect squatter’s assets and so the price
of the assets could, through the mechanism of Improvement Purchases, be offset
against the upse[...](19702134). There were also the
associated costs of improving the land as required under the various Acts.

Most of the capital for the pastoral expansion in the Wes[...]seems indubitable that
the industry was incapable of providing from its own resources, more than a small
fraction of the total capital requirements” (19622388). In the early period of squatting
most of the capital had come from a variety of sources, banks, merchants,
partnerships of friends, relatives and so on. However the demands of pastoral finance
lead to the development of banks and non-bank pastoral finance houses. Both[...]th providing finance to the
pastoralist. Because of their size and nature they were also a tap for fo[...]utlin and Barnard trace an all too familiar story of increasing indebtedness based on
the rising, if s[...]s. “In the early eighties personal indebtedness of £100,000, secured
by station mortgages, was by n[...]ks and Pastoral companies were registered holders of 50% of
Western Division leases (Cain 19622436).

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (132)THE 18905 DEPRESSION AND THE END OF SQUATTING

The 18905 brought together a series of trends in the pastoral industry of increased
production costs and decreasing wool pr[...]and in
the end decides that it was a combination of both (1971 :77). Wool prices began to
decline in[...]wool to coarser wool which compounded
the effect of low prices (Boehm 1971 :80-83). On the production side Boehm points to
the trend of increasing costs of production in the 18805 through increased Crown
rents, labour costs, costs of establishing stations in arid areas and interest[...]environment and ultimately the
carrying capacity of the run.

The 18905 Depression seems to have begun with the collapse of the speculative urban
land boom in Melbourne whic[...]he late 18805 but which was obscured by a
variety of factors until 1891 when the tightening money market caused an number of
land companies and Banks to crash (Boehm 1971:255). This, in turn lead to a series of
collapses and bankruptcies until the Banking Crisis of April and May 1893. A5 a
result capital dried up[...]Queensland (see Butlin 1962a:Table l). The impact of drought and rabbits
devastated the Western Division of NSW, cutting wool production. As well the lack
of fodder on stOck routes prevented the movement of stock to markets.

Although there were also econo[...]Australia until 1893. At this point the cessation of British lending and calls for debt to
be repaid combined with environmental problems of the pastoral industry as well as
the decline in wool prices curtailed the ability of pastoralists to pay back debt or even
service int[...]with no choice but to initially take some
control of pastoral operations and eventually foreclose and take over management of
stations for themselves. The end result was that[...]oral
companies were lefi managing a large number of pastoral stations in NSW and
Queensland mostly in[...]nd pastoral
companies were the registered holders of 13% and 4% of pastoral holdings in the
Western Division respect[...]891 the figures were 17% and 33% (i.e.
50%) half of the pastoral holdings (Cain 1962:435-436).

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (133)[...]intensifying in western NSW, a remarkable period of homestead
construction was occurring in Victoria.[...]the 18405 and 18505 but “in a five year burst of homestead redevelopment
the powerful long establi[...]ies were to transform the architectural
character of western Victoria (Willingham 1984274). This invol[...]ects involved, the precise
reasons for this burst of construction remain obscure save for comments tha[...]ould it be that the homestead building was a form of celebration
of the squatters’ success in fending off the selec[...]y, there is nothing on the
Western District scale of housing to be found in the Riverina although Free[...]s to protect squatter’s assets and so the price
of the assets could, through the mechanism of Improvement Purchases, be offset
against the upse[...](1970:134). There were also the
associated costs of improving the land as required under the various Acts.

Most of the capital for the pastoral expansion in the Wes[...]seems indubitable that
the industry was incapable of providing from its own resources, more than a small
fraction of the total capital requirements” (1962:388). In the early period of squatting
most of the capital had come from a variety of sources, banks, merchants, partnerships
of friends, relatives and so on. However, the demands of pastoral finance lead to the
development of banks and non-bank pastoral finance houses. Both[...]th providing finance to the pastoralist. Because of
their size and nature they were also a tap for fo[...]utlin and Barnard trace an all too familiar story of increasing indebtedness based on
the rising, if s[...]s. “In the early eighties personal indebtedness of £100,000, secured
by station mortgages, was by n[...]ks and Pastoral companies were registered holders of 50% of
Western Division leases (Cain 1962:436).

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (134)129

THE 18908 DEPRESSION AND THE END OF SQUATTING

The 1890s brought together a series of trends in the pastoral industry of increased
production costs and decreasing wool pr[...]and in
the end decides that it was a combination of both (1971 :77). Wool prices began to
decline in[...]wool to coarser wool which compounded
the effect of low prices (Boehm 1971:80-83). On the production side Boehm points to
the trend of increasing costs of production in the 18803 through increased Crown
rents, labour costs, costs of establishing stations in arid areas and interest[...]environment and ultimately the
carrying capacity of the run.

The 1890s Depression seems to have begun with the collapse of the speculative urban
land boom in Melbourne whic[...]he late 1880s but which was obscured by a
variety of factors until 1891 when the tightening money market caused a number of
land companies and Banks to crash (Boehm 19712255). This, in turn lead to a series of
collapses and bankruptcies until the Banking Crisis of April and May 1893. Therefore
capital dried up an[...]Queensland (see Butlin 1962azTable 1). The impact of drought and rabbits
devastated the Western Division of NSW, cutting wool production. As well, the lack
of fodder on stock routes prevented the movement of stock to markets.

Although there were also econo[...]Australia until 1893. At this point the cessation of British lending and calls for debt to
be repaid combined with environmental problems of the pastoral industry as well as
the decline in wool prices curtailed the ability of pastoralists to pay back debt or even
service int[...]with no choice but to initially take some
control of pastoral operations and eventually foreclose and take over management of
stations for themselves. The end result was that[...]toral
companies were left managing a large number of pastoral stations in NSW and
Queensland mostly in[...]nd pastoral
companies were the registered holders of 13% and 4% of pastoral holdings in the

Western Division respec[...]891 the figures were 17% and 33% (i.e.
50%) half of the pastoral holdings (Cain 1962:435-436).

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (135)130

The wholesale taking over of pastoral properties by mortgagees marks the end of the
squatter and of squatting. By the 18905, many of the original squatters and their
families had lefi the land or were proprietors of large freehold estates. Others were
reduced to being tenants of banks or ruined altogether. In some areas such as parts of
Central NSW the squatting runs were beginning to[...]begun in Westem Victoria. In the Western Division of NSW the pastoralist’s
situation was so bad that following a Royal Commission the entire situation of grazing

was reviewed and the Western Lands Commission was established to manage the
land.

The emergence of wholesale absentee ownership of squatting runs marks the end of
husbanding the run. A manager was valued for his[...]rather than the
economically intangible benefits of respectability. These changes are well expressed[...]ritten in 1890. The poem contrasts the
happy days of squatting and the generous, amiable squatter Kiley, with the rule of the
absentee owner in London who acquired the pro[...]On Kiley’s run.”

CONCLUSION

The beginning of the 18503 saw the squatters in secure possession of much of South-
Eastem Australia and slowly moving into th[...]l established in society and politics. The advent of responsible government saw
lands policy placed in the hands of State Parliaments whose Upper houses were
dominat[...]less
democratically elected. The immediate effect of the gold rushes was to increase the
prosperity of the squatters, the long term effect was to force[...]nst the Yeoman Farmers.

Selection was an outcome of the changes to Australia in the 18505 where a
combination of responsible government, a large increase of population following the
gold rushes and ideology of domesticity resulted in the demand for small farm[...]oman farmer”. Faced with squatters leasing most of South-Eastem Australia the
parliamentary represen[...]on acted to legislate to implement the
principals of selection which they hoped would support the yeoman ideal. The actual
methods of achieving selection varied between the states. The yeoman ideal remained
constant throughout the latter half of the nineteenth century and well into the
t[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (136)The implementation of selection was by a process of legislation, regulation, and
bureaucracy, which imposed a way of turning leasehold or Crown land into freehold
lan[...]s alike used this process to realise their ideals of
domesticity, the squatter by trying to create an[...]trying to create a
small farm. Thus, the pattern of settlement and the creation of the landscape were
undertaken in the context of this legislative regime. Obscure sections and

interpretations of the old Lands Acts are often of crucial importance in shaping the
landscape.

The[...]h little
regard for the geography and environment of South-Eastem Australia. The limitation
on the size of selector’s holdings created farms that were inh[...]over, the distance from markets limited the range of farming options available
for the selector. Selec[...]conflict between the squatter and selector both of who were
striving to achieve the same ideals, often on the same land. This perhaps explains the
varied level of squatter response to selecting. In many cases, th[...]own

estates. In other cases, there was a degree of accommodation between squatter and
selector.

The[...]pter was the continuing expansion and
development of the wool industry into the arid western plains an[...]reeds, fencing large paddocks and the development of water
conservation measures such as dams and tank[...]toral
lease. This increased the carrying capacity of land and buoyed by good prices for

wool a considerable amount of money was spent establishing pastoral stations in[...]to collapse due to overstocking, the
introduction of rabbits, the growth of scrub, and a series of extensive droughts. This
was coupled with a sever[...]nd the 18905 depression finished off the old form of squatting.
Selection either forced the squatter into debt, collapse, and the breakup of the run or
allowed the squatter to turn his lease[...]t where
selection was less important the collapse of the wool industry and the effects of the
drought forced the Government to act to save[...]Western
Lands Leases extinguishing the old forms of squatting tenure.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (137)133

CHOICE OF THE STUDY AREA

The next chapters (6, 7 & 8) look at examples of the cultural landscapes created by
squatters to e[...]aracteristics:

0 It should be outside the limits of location and be first settled by squatters in the
period of initial squatter expansion.

0 The landholdings s[...]rom the
first squatting settlement until the end of the squatting era.

0 There should be archaeological evidence, preferably in the form a sequence of
squatter created landscapes.

o Ideally, the area[...]amilies on the make rather than company ownership of runs.

Choosing appropriate landscapes to study was difficult in that there was so much of
South-Eastem Australia to choose from. Initially the Western District of Victoria was
targeted as the author was familiar[...]a."6 The Western District contains a
large number of well-documented homesteads and landscapes and was[...]n obvious place to begin.

However, the logistics of working and studying in Sydney meant that an area[...]ttention was drawn to the areas to the
south west of Sydney, as they were a convenient 3-4 hours drive[...]ween Yass and Albury was
looked at. However, much of the land in the area has been broken up into smal[...]ting landscape did not promise to
have the degree of integrity required for this study. The Monaro was[...]was a little too far from Sydney.

In the course of selecting a study area, Lanyon in the Australia Capital Territory
(ACT97) was looked at, more out of interest in landscapes rather than with much
inte[...]anyon’s owners clearly were in the upper levels of
society (although not of the highest) and they were also squatters depastu[...]mits and occupying squatting runs over the limits of
location. In the Canberra area, the Murrumbidgee was the boundary of the limits of
location. At Lanyon the limits were easily crosse[...]g on the season and crossing location. The owners of

96 As a student then as an employee of the Victoria Archaeological Survey.
97 Created after Federation out of the State of New South Wales to form the capital of Australia. For the
period under considerat[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (138)[...]runs and their
owners worth studying in the area of Lanyon and the Valleys to the south. The land
was still in use for pastoral purposes and appeared to be of high integrity. A chance
encounter with Stephen Avery 8 on an archaeological survey of Lanyon alerted me to
the de Salis diaries which promised to give a unique insight into the squatters of the
region. The other logistical factor was the C[...]nent squatting families in the
area.

Suitability of the study area

The area meets the criteria outlined above as follows:

1. The limits of location actually are the Murrumbidgee River that[...]s were
established in the early 18305 at the time of squatting expansion.

2. The land remained predom[...]ederation.

3. There is an identifiable sequence of squatter ownership. Each run is largely
undevelop[...]now the Tuggeranong Town
Centre), northern parts of Lanyon and areas of Pine Forest. The remaining area is
still under pa[...]e area
still had the potential to retain evidence of previous landscapes and related
archaeological si[...]documented, in particular the cultural landscape of the so-called Lanyon
bowl has been studied by Ken[...]lly documented having had three histories written
of it as well as a conservation analysis and analysis of the gardens.

The diaries of George de Salis begun in 1869 document in detail the day to day
activities of the de Salis family. In addition, the Conditional Purchase records for
the area survive in the State Records of NSW. Taken together these form a
comprehensive historical record of the study area.

98 Stephen Avery had just finished an honours thesis in which he made use of the de Salis diaries.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (139)135

5. All the families had some degree of social prominence; Wright was a magistrate,
Cunni[...]was well respected in the community, de
Salis was of aristocratic stock and was an MLC from 1873, his[...]at various times. McKeahnie was respected because of his
humble origins and success. Incidentally, whe[...]6. Finally, it was thought that Lanyon comprised of a number of buildings and
structures from the Wright era whic[...]ided to focus on the
pioneering and establishment of Lanyon and Cuppacumbalong by James Wright and
John Lanyon. This covered the themes of pioneering and from squatter to
squattocracy. It[...]s conveniently cover the squatting era.

Overview of runs in the area

The sequence of squatting runs in the area around Lanyon and Thar[...]e studies.

Lanyon itself was located on the edge of the limits of location, which is the
Murrumbidgee River in the County of Murray. Lanyon was established in 1835 by
James W[...]k seems to have been run in the hills to the east of
Lanyon on Crown Land.

Wright also took up Cuppac[...]s the Naas valley. Later he created Boroombah out of

Cuppacumbalong for his wife’s family, the Davi[...]a in
1841.

Colonel Thomas Hiah Macquoid, Sheriff of the Supreme Court of NSW purchased
Tuggeranong (or Wanniassa) which, like Lanyon, was located on the edge of the
limits and had a squatting run called Freshfo[...]gwarrah.
Macquoid also went insolvent to the tune of £2,792-10-3 which unfortunately was

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (140)[...]d pay his
fathers debts (he earned the admiration of society for this activity). He sold Freshford
to Andrew Cunningham and some land at Wanniassa (part of Tuggeranong) was
leased to tenants. At the time w[...]enby. Both died on the return voyage in the wreck of the Dunbar 1857.
Following this, Andrew Cunningham was able to purchase much of Tuggeranong
from Macquoids estate. Cunningham bou[...]n
and in 1893 the Union Bank took over management of the runs and later sold them to
the partnership of Campbell and Circuit.

By the 18705 the Murrumbid[...]a considerable amount (as
conditional purchases) of the estates as well. This pattern of land ownership remained
until Federation.

Afier Federation much of the land was resumed by the Government and became[...]ined under
pastoral occupation with the exception of much of Tuggeranong and the north—eastem
part of Lanyon, both are covered with urban sprawl, which[...]nd and tacky. Extensive pine forests forming part of the Pierces Creek Pine
Plantation are planted on the northern parts of the Congwarra run. A similar plantation
is found[...]usly the hilly terrain and the
undeveloped nature of the area lead it to become the site for as[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (141)ENVIRONMENT

This section outlines the environment of the study area in broad regional terms and

serves as a point of reference from which the landscapes to be studied can be
described.

Geology

The geology of Canberra region is relatively well known with sev[...]graphic units have been identified in the region of the study
area (see Evans 198723, other authors h[...]elly Uplands

The Mount Kelly Uplands are an area of high relief and valleys to the west of the
Murrumbidgee fault. The underlying geology is formed by the granites of
Murrumbidgee batholith and it is often called by[...]tern edge by a prominent escarpment.

The valleys of the Cotter, Paddy’s, Orroral, Naas and Gudgenby rivers are included in
this unit. A characteristic of these valleys is that they are quite open in thei[...]and they narrow and deepen as they reach the edge of the Mount Kelly
Uplands, run over the Murrumbidge[...]” behind the escarpment immediately to the west of
the Murrumbidgee fault. It is of interest to note that some rivers and streams act[...]ock Highlands

This is the north-westem extension of the Tinderry Range and is separated from the
Moun[...]n to the north east until they reach the vicinity of Queanbeyan where they
run north along Sullivans fault. The underlying geology is volcanics of the Deakin
and Laidlaw formation. The terrain is[...]to 1000m on local hill crests. Once on the crest of the ridges and hills
there are small open areas of relatively flat terrain. The hills and slopes are marked by
outcrops of stone forming scree slopes on the valley s[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (142)[...]h lie the Canberra plains noted as being a series of plains with relic hills of
more resistant material (such as Black Mountain)[...]mbidgee rivers. Van Dijk has identified a series of five peneplains created by
phases of erosion and stability in the Canberra area (1959), mainly along the valley of
the Molonglo River. He has correlated these with[...]hronologically (see below).

Climate

The climate of the region has been discussed by Pryor and Brewer[...]s - defined by McAlpine and Yapp as a succession of
weeks where the soil moisture storage remains at[...]authors show that between 1901 and 1960 droughts of over four
months duration occurred for 20% of the time (1969:73). Interestingly they do not
dis[...]nfall between 1877 and 1977 for
Queanbeyan.

None of the authors discuss floods although it seems tha[...]er (1979) and Walker (1978)

have mapped a series of soil-landscape associations throughout the ACT wh[...]applicable to other areas.

Such classification of soils masks more complex processes of soil formation and
landscape evolution. Van Dijk (1959) and Kellet (1980) have studied the processes of
soil formation and landscape evolution in the region. Van Dijk studied the catchment
of the Molonglo River on the Canberra Plains. He identified four major landscape
surfaces, each of which had been eroded into by streams, and by she[...]ly filled by sediment deposited after each phase of erosion. Van Dijk identified

five cycles of soil formation and landscape erosion-depos[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (143)Kellet, in his investigation of the hydrogeology of two stream basins at Lanyon,
identified a similar set of landsurfaces and erosion-deposition cycles in the[...]til threshold conditions
are reached then periods of rapid erosion. These cycles are controlled by loc[...]helps in establishing that there was a great deal of landscape change over
time in the region (not just as a result of recent clearing). It also demonstrates that soil
formation processes are not just the simple result of paedogenesis on bedrock but in
some areas (notabl[...]ttoms, river terraces and
plains) are the results of complex patterns of pre-contact landscape evolution.

Vegetation

“[...]sponds to the 200011
contour in the neighbourhood of the site (presumably Canberra). Below this line t[...]ffith Taylor in 1910 identifying the key
feature of the regional vegetation pattern, the expanse of treeless grassland plains and
the marked tree lin[...]tween hills and plains to account for
the absence of trees (1918:684-688). Pryor and later Burbidge an[...]that the grasslands were created by a
combination of low rain and low temperature (1954:165).

At the time of Pryor’s writing, anthropogenic explanations for the occurrence of
grasslands were not considered relevant. However,[...]nal burning
practices assisted in the maintenance of grassland. Themeda grasslands are well
known to r[...]and plant species as
well as promoting the growth of plant foods. Evidence for the role of Aborigines in
burning adjacent to the Monaro plai[...]Kangaroo Grass (Themeda australia) with a
mixture of Poa caespitosa on wetter, heavier soils and Stipa[...]idered that the alteration to the original extent of
grasslands was so great that he could not set out[...]Surrounding the grasslands was a savanna woodland of widely spaced dominant trees
(typically E. mellid[...]is limited to elevations below 760mm and rainfall of about 58cm per year.

At higher elevations[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (144)[...]ominant species form a closed canopy with a layer of
small shrubs underneath.

Wet sclerophyll forest[...]high. Underneath the closed canopy lies a stratum of
Acacia and under this a tall shrub stratum. In we[...]ratum.

On the extreme western and southern areas of the region are Alpine Woodlands
dominated by E. m’phophila with a scattering of shrubs and grasses. These areas
although wet are[...]tudy area is largely dominated by the unique form of the rivers and streams
within it. The Naas, Gudge[...]ream from the
gorges are flats, broad open areas of grassland with a swampy bottom. Flats, despite
th[...]t flat but gently undulating. Around the margins of the flats is a
distinctive tree line on the adja[...]d for as you
go upstream you move through an area of gorge and then into a flat then another
gorge an[...]at Tharwa is at 580m, Naas at 650m. The elevation of the two runs to
the west, Gudgenby at c.980m and[...]through gorges and semi-gorges the steep margins of streams makes it
difficult for stock to actually access the rivers thus reducing the value of river
frontages in many areas as they cannot be u[...]ssible for an individual to
dominate a large area of land by selecting or peacocking the frontage of a particular
area. The Lands Department tried to control this by limiting the amount of frontage an
individual could hold in a con[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (145)[...]e study illustrates the formation and maintenance of
a typical squatting landscape in this period from[...]un — Cuppacumbalong.99

Afier a brief overview of the settlement in the Canberra region, the process of
pioneering and establishing Lanyon is discussed. This is followed by a discussion of
the development of the run as a mixture of freehold and squatting settlement with a
combination of agriculture and sheep grazing. Wright’s bankruptcy and ultimate sale
of Lanyon is then discussed. The evidence of the age of buildings, structures and
landscape at Lanyon is discussed in order to establish some idea of the landscape
during Wrights occupancy. Finally,[...]eering, Wright’s social status and the question of whether the landscape
was one of “captive labour” or not.

REGIONAL SETTLEMENT

The settlement of the Canberra region began with initial exploratio[...]s Plain, after Miss Brisbane” (Moore
1982:11).

Official settlement reached the Limestone Plains in[...]k to the Judge Advocate, was issued with a ticket of occupation for land at
Canberry on the Molonglo R[...]afterwards Robert Campbell was granted
4000 acres of land in the Limestone Plains area as compensation for his losses in the
wreck of the Sydney in 1816 (Steven 19662281, 297). Campbell established his grant
to the north of the Molonglo at Duntroon. Soon after his brother-[...]small settlement
established at the head station of each run where more intensive agriculture occurre[...]re absent in
Sydney.

By 1828, a small settlement of some eight runs on the Limestone Plains had been
established. Most of the runs were established along the Molonglo River and were on
large tracts of freehold land obtained either by grant, as in the case of Campbell, or by
purchase. Some landholders and ot[...]example, Timothy Beard, a

99 The main buildings of Lanyon homestead are now preserved as a popular historic site on the outskirts
of Canberra in the ACT.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (146)[...]r moved on from Queanbeyan
when John Stephen, son of the Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of NSW, applied
for the land to be surveyed and it w[...]in 1826 (Lea-Scarlett

1968: 13-14). This pattern of squatting appears to have been quite common (Lea-[...]tlement in NSW before the huge
pastoral expansion of the 1830s. Following the example of Higginbotham (1993), the
Census has been used to[...]—————---

1 This is an amalgamation of all Campbell’s holdings and it is impossible to[...]cres. I have used the
latter as that was the size of Moore's grant at Canberra.

Table 2 Landow[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (147)The settlement pattem in 1828 consisted of large properties owned by absentee
landlords base[...]ties listed can be placed in the Canberra
region, of which all, except Molonglo, can be described as b[...]mall property -— J ier. The owners were
members of the colonial Gentry and the properties were manag[...]an was a
squatting run on Crown Land as the ratio of stock to land shows. Molonglo was
unique in the l[...]e family. Settlement
was focused along the course of the Molonglo River and grants had virtually locke[...]in this area.

In the settlement at Canberra many of the elements of Government land policy
(discussed in Chapter 3) a[...]. Moore first occupied his land under the Ticket
of Occupation system. Campbell received his land as[...]re,
Murdoch and Johnston all claimed land because of their position in society. Beard
was a squatter,[...]Land without much authority and as an emancipist
of a lower class, he was of the skulking squatter type. There are no details[...]The land was granted because it was in the County of Murray
which was within the limits of location in October 1829. It is of interest to note that
such large estates were established on the extreme edge of settlement: this indicates
the pressure on grazin[...]3, which was an important factor in
the expansion of squatting.

Four properties, Duntroon, Ginnindarr[...]as
running sheep and cattle. However, in the case of Duntroon and Ginnindarra the
number of labourers listed in the Census indicate that there was a reasonable amount
of cultivation as well. Presumably this was the growing of root and grain crops. A
split in activities betwe[...]ith nine shepherds
and seven labours, the balance of workers were the Blacksmith, Shoemaker and
Superi[...]longer.

In the Census just over a quarter (28%) of the land is listed as cleared. This seems to
be a[...]0.7%) is more likely to measure the actual
extent of clearing and bringing the land into agricultural production.

Of a population of 79, there are only four women and three family gr[...]also unusual in being an ex-convict among a group of mostly
respectable land owners. Campbell and the Palmers were respected colonial Gentry
although not of the first rank because of their involvement in commerce. Robert

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (148)[...]e 6.1 detail showing the Canberra region from Map of the Colony of
New South Wales, 1834
Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (149)Campbell was a member of the Legislative Council from 1825 and was a leading
member of colonial society.

The Canberra area is depicted on Mitchell’s Map of the Colony of NSW, which
although published in 1834 was based on a series of surveys from 1828, onwards
(Andrews 1992). The Ca[...]s, the Canberra region was
surveyed within a year of the Census. The survey was a trigonometrical survey
inherently more accurate than those of early explorers and thus it provides the first
reasonably accurate map of the Canberra region.

The map reproduced as Figur[...]un around this time. There is
no evidence however of settlement in the Lanyon area before 1834.

The r[...]ttern in 1829 would have been a sparse collection of
buildings and cultivation plots forming the eight[...]Settlement would be sparse and little in the way of impact on the
environment would be seen. Looking[...]wards Lanyon, Naas,
and the mountains no evidence of settlement would be seen although no doubt the
sm[...]LING THE ISABELLA PLAINS

Peter Murdoch, a cousin of Governor Brisbane, who had served the Government as
Superintendent of the Emu Plains government farm and later at the c[...]t Maria Island, received a grant for his services of 2000 acres of land. The land he
applied for on the Isabella Pla[...]as established on what is
now Portion 203, Parish of Tuggeranong, then also known as Isabella Plains ([...]n was
not strictly legal, and generally consisted of an ephemeral out-station, three shepherds

'00 Robert Johnston son of Colonel Johnston of the Rum Rebellion.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (150)[...]d Joe Beard at
Mount Tennent, which is just south of Lanyon (Andrews 1979263). Lhotsky, although
visit[...]o
may be inaccurate as regards location and names of those occupying land there.
Subsequent evidence s[...]what was to become Lanyon.

The early occupation of the Lanyon area is difficult to reconstruct. Ray discusses the
evidence of a map drawn by surveyor Henry White dated 15/01/1[...]ree that “Timothy” Beard was a prior occupier
of the land around Lanyon from around 1834. When sur[...]ry 1835 drew up the portion plan for the purchase of Lanyon he noted Beard’s
station on what became[...]tter by reading an inscription on Lanyon’s plan of Portion 64 (see Figure 6.6 ) as
“Hurst’s sheep station” (Ray 1981: 3). My reading of the inscription is “huts and
sheep station” and this is born out by examination of Hoddle’s original field books
(Figure 6.2) tha[...]ea as Beard’s sheep station without any mention of
“Hurst”.

Another question is raised by mention of George Webb’s supposed occupation of
Lanyon in 1834 and dispute with Wright and Lanyon. Moore discusses this but fails to
supply any evidence of the sources of his tale (Moore 1982:14). Ray (1981 :2) records
t[...]r than Webb’s residence. The principal evidence of a dispute is in Davis
Wright’s reminiscences wh[...]ruary 1835. I think this map may have been a copy of Dixon’s 1826 map updated. It
is difficult to tell though as the National Library holds a copy of the map but not the original, which
seems to be l[...]to be dated by the lithograph, which in the
case of charting maps only provides a terminus post quem.[...]ce the 19603. However a copy made in 1911 as part of the
creation of the ACT survives in Canberra. Hoddle‘s field books are held in the State Records of NSW.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (151)[...]long; III/.1 .1" MM
maximal :a/d at Me
54/! of I?" /035

//70 Acres-We u[...]11mg...“ 1-.- f

g M 3| m ‘

Figure 6.3 Plan of Portions of land applied for to purchase under the
regulations of lst August 1831 by John Hamilton Mortimer[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (152)[...]miniscences, suggesting that Webb
was in the area of Lanyon around 1835. Webb may have been the indivi[...]ssed later). Hoddle’s field books show a number ofof several major
pastoral holdings on the Canberra plains situated mainly along the Molonglo River.
Some of these would have had temporary out-stations occup[...]ross the plains. In
the valleys beyond the limits of location smaller squatters such as Herbert at Naa[...]John Hamilton Mortimer Lanyon ventured in search
of a grazing run.

ESTABLISHING LANYON RUNm

The owners

James Wright was born about 1797, one of the sons of William Wright a merchant of
Derbyshire and later Surrey. He seems to have com[...]correspondence as “esquire” which was a sign of
respectability. All we know about Wright’s background is based on the memories of
his son William Davis Wright. According to Davis[...]s described as a
“merchant”.

Little is known of John Hamilton Mortimer Lanyon. Born in England in[...]ss (1982: 13). However, Ray points to the
absence of Lanyon on the passenger list and his presence on that of the Medway as
evidence that Wright and Lanyon did[...]econd is Pam Ray’s history commissioned as part of the conservation planning for Lanyon. Finally
sev[...]later is Chamber’s history commissioned as part of Lanyon’s interpretation. As will
become apparent in the course of this chapter, each has their strengths and[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (153)no claim on Wright, James Wright may have had the majority of the capital while
John Lanyon, provided the youth[...]on 25
April 1840. His brothers were William, 4th Officer of the East Indiaman Hythe, who
died 18 November 1831 “by the upsetting of a boat in the Canton river” and Charles,
a nota[...]ounds and had
connections with trade and a degree of respectability. As such they were typical of
what de Serville identified as “men of substance and respectability” (1980:32). This
group was outside “good society” but formed the core of land owners, squatters, civil
servants, and profe[...]rank behind the Campbells and Palmers, who while of the same social rank,
had acquired a pre-eminance[...]their long residence in the colony and
were part of the Colonial Gentry. There is no evidence that either Wright or Lanyon
had any experience of sheep farming.

Lanyon only remained in Australia[...]left an indelible mark on the
country in the form of his name.

William Wright, James’ eldest brothe[...]some capital
with him as he purchased the balance of the Lanyon estate. James Wright’s list of
creditors include the following, described as cas[...]mercial
interests into Australia. Presumably news of the commercial opportunities in the
sheep industr[...]ospect,
William Wright was sent out with the bulk of the capital. John Lanyon may have been
a f[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (154)he was destined to be the manager of the property. This was a typical arrangement
havi[...]ctoria.

Initial occupation

The precise sequence of events leading to Wright and Lanyon’s occupation of Lanyon
is unclear. Chambers claims that “Wright[...]anyon (1987: 1). While this seems a
likely course of action, Chambers does not supply convincing evide[...]nearest
settler” ( 1982: 1 3), despite evidence of Beard’s occupation of a site on Lanyon. Moore
also gives an account of the activities of establishing themselves on the site, again
based on no evidence although it is likely from other accounts of settling that they
followed a similar procedure.1[...]land fronted the Murrumbidgee River and the rear of the blocks
rested on the hills. The northern boundary of the land was Murdoch land. Four lots
were surveye[...]64 960 acres

The land was sold at an upset price of 5/— per acre at auction on the 13th February
18[...]otal estate was 4790 acres and at the upset price
of 5/- per acre would have cost £1197 to establish.[...]a
much larger squatting run. Presumably, the lack of secure tenure was the reason,
which points to a conservatism in his financial dealings.

'04 One of the frustrating aspects of these histories is their lack of references. I have been told that
Moore drew on a number of original documents in his possession, whic[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (155)[...]n commissioned by James Wright and to be the work of a Sydney draftsman
(1982:20). This ignores the evidence of the annotation as Lanyon’s block never was
owne[...]ot purchase all the portions.

'05 The provenance of these maps is slightly mysterious. They ar[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (156)[...]r
.
2...?4,” ’- 00 Flat":

Figure 6.4 Plan of Lanyon (sourced to the ACT Heritage Unit)

Figure[...]p to 1834 (1981226) which is wrong
given the date of the land purchases. This plan is regarded by some[...]oue-Long 1993282) as indicating Lanyon’s dreams
of a massive pastoral expansion. Blair and Claoue-Long comment “The sketch map of
L’Anyon estate is attributed to John Lanyon. It[...]ining the Lanyon property” (1993182). This view
of the map as a veritable Schlieffen plan of pastoral dominance goes far beyond the
evidence of the plan itself. The annotations on the pl[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (157)[...]_. V

.ch It 40 (Kiel-ll lo ‘1

Figure 6.5 Plan of L’Anyon Estate (sourced to ACT Heritage Unit)

adjacent to Wright’s and Lanyon’s purchases in terms of grazing capability this was a
typical annotation to plans of that time. Who knows what Lanyon’s dreams of pastoral
conquest were?

Both maps show some of the features on the property. Figure 6.6 shows a[...]and sheep station on Portion 64.
This is the site of Beard’s huts, which are in the area just north of the Tharwa Road
and south of Lanyon homestead. There is no indication of any construction on the site
of the present Lanyon homestead. The map is also annotated on the west bank of the

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (158)[...]not occurred at this time.
Based on the depiction of two huts it is suggested that the hut located on[...]men occupying the other hut to the south. Remains of this hut have been searched for

by a number of archaeologists but no archaeological evidence of its location has been
found.

By the end of 1836, the Lanyon estate consisted of some 4770 acres of freehold land.
The freehold land took in two dist[...]y Ranges that run roughly north-south to the east of Wrights freehold land.

The configuration of these ranges, the Murrumbidgee River and Mount Tennent,
combine to form a sort of bowl shaped landscape, termed “the Lanyon bowl”(Taylor
et a1. 1987). The rest of the Lanyon estate is located within this bowl although the
fieehold land only extends to the base of the steeply rising slopes. Immediately east of
the freehold land, the hills steeply rise in a si[...]metre wide and then rises moderately to the
crest of the ranges.

The rising flanks of Lanyon Hill would not have been good sheep countr[...]st would have been good sheep country. The bottom
of the Lanyon bowl would have also been good for she[...]gh it. Squatting options could be to put a flock of sheep up into the
valley to the east and graze ca[...]e them and had to be removed as
he was in the way of Wright’s plan to occupy the land as a squatting run. With the
passing of the 1836 “An Act to restrain the unauthorised occupation of Crown Lands”
(7 Will IV c. 4) it was now legal for squatting outside the limits of location to occur.
A hitherto unpublished letter of 15‘h September 1836, James Wright to the Coloni[...]reads:

Sir

I beg to address you for the purpose of requesting information as to
when, where, to whom[...]the
necessary licence for a continued occupation of Crown land without the

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (159)[...]a c A; 4R4\..\..

Figure 6.6 Plan of Lanyon (sourced to ACT Heritage Unit)

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (160)[...]ps necessary to be taken for removing from a part
of the land above named a squatter notorious for sel[...]d other infamous characters.

Awaiting the favour of your reply
I am sir your most obedient servant

([...]Secretary 4/1 117.1 letter 36/7647, State
Records of NSW)

Wright was sent the appropriate form to com[...]s application, which was
granted, was in the name of William and James Wright and listed their assets as 2,820
acres, 4000 sheep and 300 head of cattle. (Applications from individuals for
depasturing licences, Colonial Secretary 4/1117.1 Register of Applications, 36/ 10636
is the Wrights application, State Records of NSW).

The above letter to the Colonial Secretary[...]d
established a squatting run on the eastern bank of the Murrumbidgee by 1836.
Whether the squatter co[...]uatter’s name or his fate. However the
evidence of this letter fits Davis Wright’s evidence and t[...]and had to be
removed by Wright. Whether Webb was of such notorious character is doubtful. As
the Colo[...]ry was hardly likely to remove a respected member ofof them actually had any right to be there. But,
bec[...]rious character and Wright, by implication is not
of that ilk, Wright assumed that Webb would be sent[...]s the
Cuppacumbalong run. Given the difficulties of crossing the Murrumbidgee River a

'06 It[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (161)[...]river to service
Wright’s workers.

The process of establishing the run involved the inspection of the property, the
purchasing of freehold land (which is unusual for a squatter) and the dispossession of
prior occupiers, in this case not the Aborigines, but two squatters of lesser status,
Beard and Webb. There is no evidence of what, if any, changes to the landscape were
made.[...]near the river.

CONSOLIDATING THE RUN

The task of establishing Lanyon was concluded with the auctions of 1836 and the
taking up of what was to become Cuppacumbalong. By 1837 of course, John Lanyon
had left and William Wright w[...]right to manage the property
and Lanyon’s share of the sheep himself. With William Wright’s death,[...], provide some insight into Wright’s husbanding of his runs. Although
Wright wrote to the Colonial Secretary in August to complain of the difficulty in
finding a Magistrate in order[...]on
received assigned convicts once their purchase of Lanyon was finalised and that
records of this have been overlooked. Convicts were a cheap[...]94-95) is
missing the detail in the whole system of convict assignment.

Assignment of convicts to settlers was introduced as part of a general hardening of the
convict system in the wake of the Bigge reports (Shaw 19712191). While the cost of
labour was saved, Governor Gipps claimed t[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (162)[...]h

Hive

Susan

Lord Sidmouth
Lady Nugent
Marquis of Hastings
Lady Nugent
Strathfieldsay
John Barry[...]primary source material on Wright’s management of Lanyon comes from
the Deposition Books of the Queanbeyan Bench of Magistrates (Bench of Magistrates
Deposition Book, Queanbeyan, State Re[...]“convict stain".

163

Hirst comments “one of the colony’s claims to fame ought to be that it[...]rds - worked alone” (1983265).

Precise details of the assignment process of Wright’s management of convicts have
not survived.'°8 However, the 1837[...]n is easily explained when the convoluted
methods of preparing the muster are understood (see B[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (163)164

inevitably focuses on the less successful aspects of the convict/master relationship.
However, the depositions do give important evidence of conditions on the run.

The evidence of the Deposition Books show that there was a farm and dairy run by
one group of convicts and a sheep operation run by convict shepherds and hut keepers
away from the main core of Lanyon. Exactly when this system started is uncle[...]as Appleby seems to have supervised the
shepherds of whom there were about 20 in mid-1840. Appleby’s[...]regular basis to ensure they were working
(Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Administration of Justice at
Queanbeyan: Depositions of Lockyer and Appleby.) Both Matthews and Appleby[...]oncerning sheep, in particular the shepherds loss of flocks
and the resulting sheep deaths.

In common with many others, Wright had an incentive system of rationing.
Government rations were issued to thos[...]ssued to those well behaved. How well this system of incentive worked is unclear,
however convicts wer[...]was hardly
Wright’s alone as a serious analysis of the Queanbeyan Deposition book evidence
shows tha[...]October 1837 Farquhar McKenzie and Donald McLeod of Gundaroo visited
Lanyon. McKenzie wrote “one of the most picturesque places I have seen in the
co[...]y 1981 :22). This suggests that little in the way of
construction, planting gardens or clearing had oc[...]ht. In the Deposition books the geographic extent of Lanyon can be inferred by
the localities where cr[...]e stopped at an

'09 This touches on the question of interpreting convict actions as acts of protest. Following Atkinson’s
article on[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (164)[...]might have been
with his flock in the area south of Sawyers gully. Following this area, the terrain
b[...]per and rocky before opening out at the beginning of the Naas valley.

Wright must have occupied the northern end of the Naas valley, before the Gudgenby
and Naas Riv[...]d Naas). This caused difficulties as the flocks of
Herbert and Wright occasionally got mixed. This was a serious problem, apart from
the absence of drafting facilities, which would have sped up the process of sorting
them out. Mixing sheep would have spread[...]ons (by this the prisoners seem to mean locations of small huts for
shepherds and watchmen) were locat[...]ree-mile radius suggests that the area just south of Tharwa is the most likely
location for the station.

With the establishment of the Commissioners of Crown Lands (CCL) in 1839, Henry
Bingham was appo[...]bidgee District, which
commenced on the west bank of the Murrumbidgee River - the boundary of the
County of Murray. Bingham’s first action on being appoin[...]district and covers the runs on the western bank of the Murrumbidgee as well as
mentioning Lanyon where Bingham spent a night. The details of his itinerary are
reproduced as Table 4.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (165)166

Table 4 Itinerary of Henry Bingham CCL in 1839

2/10/38 James Wright J[...]ssa Macquord and Weston John Weston

No of residents

N
N

3/10/38

._.
DJ

(FRESHFORD ??[...]Chippendale illegible
5/10/38

Table 4 Itinerary of Henry Bingham CCL in 1839 (ctd.)

WW$_
Run of Buildings ation
_—------—
Porthole Sla[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (166)[...]lled to Lanyon

These records document the spread of squatting along the western Murrumbidgee
River and into the mountain valleys. Wright had a large run of 23 miles,
predominantly grazing sheep. No cultiva[...]s
was occurring at Lanyon the homestead.1 H It is of interest that Macquoid’s run does
not have cult[...]ining runs do. Wanniassa was also an

out-station of Macquoid’s freehold property (then called Wanas[...]to be owner-occupied.

The identity and location of the second Porthole run held by R. Pasmore has pu[...]. Possibly, Porthole may have been an out-station ofof the
runs he Visited. Given this, if Porthole was[...]nformed speculation rather than
verifiable fact, of which none seem to be available.

The land to the north of Lanyon was the Wanniassa estate (or Tuggeranong)[...]ho owned the next
block to the north. The Sheriff of the Supreme Court of NSW, Colonel Thomas Hiah
Macquoid appears to have[...]). Gradually he built up a large pastoral holding of almost 7000
acres freehold land as well as the squatting run of Freshford over the Murrumbidgee
from Tuggeranong.[...]to run the property (1982:64).

Among the friends of the Macquoid family was the family of Bishop Broughton, the
first Anglican Bishop of Australia. Bishop Broughton’s party returned to[...]shop Broughton’s party was Mary Davis, daughter of
William and Jane Davis and eldest of eleven children. In Sydney Mary lived first with[...]married in St James Church (Ray 1982:11). Details of
Wright’s courtship are briefly mentione[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (167)[...]med by Chambers, Moore, and Ray that the marriage of Wright would have
resulted in the upgrading of the accommodation at Lanyon (Moore 198225). The
construction of Wright’s second house is thought to be due to the presence of Mary
although typically the historians dispute the precise details of the nature and
construction of the house. However Larrner’s sketch of December 1840 shows a

modest establishment of three buildings and possible a barn and yards (see Figure
6.7).

The Census of 1841, compiled by the Commissioner of Crown Lands Henry
Bingham, lists a population of 59 persons at Lanyon. This comprised 8 married ma[...]ydney State Records X950 Reel 2223).

The balance of Mary Wright’s family emigrated in 1841 , arrivi[...]ed to Sydney to meet them. The an'ivals
consisted of Mary’s parents William and Jane Davis plus six children. Wright
engaged some of the emigrant families on the ship to work for him and most of them
later became prominent citizens of the Canberra area (Moore 1982:40). It appears that
Wright gave the Davis family part of the Cuppacumbalong run to occupy for they
were es[...]to Cuppacumbalong in 1843.

Curiously the effect of the ending of convict assignment in July 1841 is not discussed
in the histories of Lanyon, though this must have resulted in changes[...]on was run. One effect may have been scaling down of Wright’s agricultural
activities as there seems little evidence of these in his bankruptcy papers and they
would hav[...]ormation about the transition from the
pioneering of Lanyon to a more settled establishment. Presumabl[...]nvicts, as he would have had to
provide some form of accommodation for them. The depositions in the Be[...]ty. The farming
activities occurred near the site of Lanyon homestead while the sheep grazing
occurred[...]roombah runs).

The most intensive transformation of the landscape would have occurred near the
Lanyon[...]on was established. There is no physical evidence
of this now but it seems likely it was established o[...]hed. The sheep
would have been grazed in a series of outstations located on the flats across the run.[...]s established at Cuppacumbalong on the other
side of the Murrumbidgee.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (168)[...]ng previously (as Wright charged two assigned men of
Ritchie’s in the Queanbeyan Court). The terms were £12 per acre, 3 total of £330 plus
interest.‘ ‘3 On the 22 February 1841, Wright borrowed £1000 from the Savings Bank
of NSW and in August of that year he borrowed £100 from his agent Charle[...]the whole economy been suffering from the effects of
drought. This effectively killed the expansion of the pastoral industry, which was in
effect a spec[...]The whole economy began to decline with the loss of
pastoral income from on-selling of runs, sheep and with the decline in wool prices,
marking the beginning of the severe depression of the 1840s.

On 12 August 1843, Wright’s estate[...]e applied
for relief under the Act for the relief of Insolvent Debts (Solvent Debtors Act 1843).
The provisions of the act allowed Wright to come to some form of agreement with his
creditors to organise repaymen[...]debt.
Wright’s bankruptcy file (State Records of NSW 2/8743 packet 858) gives the sad
story of his indebtedness.

Table 5 Wright’s Financial Situation as of 12 August 1843

Debts £8470 4/ 9d Land £1648
Pe[...]owed some £1200. These were the running expenses of the property (over say a
year). He also owed some £7260 in the form of capital probably requiring say £726
per annum as[...]eded nearly £2000 per annum. However, his flock of 1500114 sheep may have
produced only £156 worth of wool per annum (based on Curr’s calculations in[...]ep but even
so, there is a suspicious deficiency of sheep. If I were avoiding bankruptcy I wou[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (169)1972:117). One disadvantage Wright had was the cost of owning Lanyon freehold
rather in contrast to the cost of holding a squatting run (£10). This cost was the[...]explain the £4425 deficiency.
With the absence of the Lanyon books and without considering Wright’s other
pastoral interests (remember Wright had a flock of 8170 sheep at the Port Hole run in
1839) it is di[...]ght left no

reputation as being a lavish spender of money.

Wright’s personal possessions was itemised as follows:

The personal possessions of James Wright and family at

Lanyon in 18431 '5

([...]solvent Estates 2/8743 Packet 858, State

Records of NSW)

1) Inventory of the effects of James Wright of Lanyon near

Queanbeyan - Insolvent

1 dining tab[...]chair

7 chairs

1 sofa

1 bookcase

300 volumes of books

1 clock

7 sporting pictures

1 four post bedstead, bed? of bedding
1 looking glass

I wash basin stand, basin & ?

2 stretcher, beds of bedding

1 small looking glass

1 wardrobe

1 fou[...]bedding

I wash basin stand, basin & e??
2 chest of draws

1 commode

2 stretcher beds & bedding

1 d[...]loughs, 2 harrows

”5 There are two inventories of different dates one merely lists the items[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (170)[...]d tools
3 pair steelyards

some earthenware

3000 of Sheep thereabouts

4 mares- 1 filly 9 - 4 foals[...]solvent Schedule “C” 12 August 1843

596 head of cattle of both sexes and mixed ages @ 40/- £1192

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (171)19 head of horses, foals, colts, mares & horses @ 10 £190
1[...]rsery £6 6d
chairs 20/-
Wright chair 10/-, chest of draws 50/- serving glasses 7/- children’s ? 3/6, £4 - 6d
2 wardrobes 10/ -1

Wardrobe £6, old chest of draws 17/-, celleret 12/-, Couch 17/9

12 chairs[...]all framed prints £9 8/-
12/-

about 100 volumes of books £6, Fender and fire irons 16/- £6 16/-[...]Wright paid 6d in the pound according to the plan of distribution approved by his

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (172)[...]right’s failure has to be placed in the context of the 18408
depression and the marginal economics of sheep farming. This is something the
historians of Lanyon have failed to do. Wright’s insolvency w[...]solated event.
It was one failure in what was one of the three major economic downturns in
Australian[...]ebt to repay and
unnecessarily increased the cost of setting up the station.

In fact, Lanyon’s position on the limits of location gave Wright an advantage in
recovering his position. The 15,000 acres of Cuppacumbalong with an annual licence
fee of £10 was cheaper to run than the 4130 acres freehold of Lanyon mortgaged to
the Bank. One also suspects that much of Wright’s stock would have been moved to
Cuppacu[...]ight’s costs considerably while preserving many of his currently devalued assets
(i. e. sheep and ca[...]e
1840s depression rather than the desperate move of an incompetent.

THE LANYON BUILDINGS, STRUCTURES[...]dence in Hoddle’s survey notes and portion plan of an
earlier occupation of the Lanyon by Timothy Beard’s men who seemed to[...]ed off (or delineated in some other way ) an area of
three paddocks (see Figure 6.2). Hoddle also reco[...]ably the same hut was recorded twice). No mention of a hut belonging
to Lanyon and Wright is recorded[...]on the flats and probably subject to the prospect of flooding.

The site chosen for the main house wa[...]til it steeply rises
(some 100m) to form a series of hills. To the east and around to the south is a s[...]y rises until suddenly there is a very steep
rise of 60 to 100m. The Murrumbidgee runs roughly[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (173)[...]country with a large flattish area directly west of
the homestead’s location, over the river. The site chosen is in the middle of the estate
but somewhat isolated from the norther[...]s interesting about the location is that the site of the house does not “dominate”
the landscape.[...]south, Lanyon is quite prominent but the view is of the rear
of the buildings, the working part. If Lanyon was in[...]over the
Murrumbidgee at Tharwa.

In her history of Lanyon, Ray discusses the likely sequence of building construction
on the property. Bravely going against the accepted tradition, Ray argued that none of
the stone buildings currently on Lanyon were cons[...]he property in 1841. Ray argues that construction of the stone buildings
in the years following would[...]ous data”
preferring the “eye-witness account of a man born there during 1841” - namely Davis
Wr[...]to assume, but by Henry
Bingham, the Commissioner of Crown Lands, who not only lived locally but also on
his tours of inspection appears to have stayed at Lanyon at le[...]as it was written and not
subject to the failings of human memory. The Census would therefore seem to be a
reasonably reliable document. For all that, it is of limited value being merely an
enumeration of the population and houses rather than a detailed description of the

property.
Turner and Lawson in summarising t[...]en Taylor
(1985) support this belief. Descendants of Andrew Cunningham seem
divided in their views (Transcript of interviews Lanyon file). Both Cox
and Tan[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (174)Figure 6.7 Larmer’s sketch Plan of Lanyon, December 1840
Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (175)This great weight of opinion is of course largely based on historical tradition and
Davis Wright. If the authorities cited in support of the accepted tradition are read, one
finds that[...]egson’s
archaeological work is cited in support of a Wright era date for a building (Turner and
Laws[...]6 (1979, 1983). The same can be said for the
work of Moore, Taylor and Cox and Tanner. Apart from Davi[...]to support the Stone Building =Wright Era theory of Lanyon construction.
The weight of support for this theory collapses when the strength of the one primary
source,1 7 which all the secondary sources cited above use, is undermined. The lack of
historical evidence has not stopped Chambers, Tay[...]egson fi'om
concurring with the traditional view of the buildings ages on the basis of simple
building construction and “strongly evocative in every detail of stone farm buildings
in Derbyshire, England, wher[...](Taylor et al.
1987:99 fn 21.). Such convocation of experts however does not mean that historical
evi[...]d not seen 19872). Larrner surveyed the alignment of the road from
Queanbeyan to Mr. Wright’s statio[...]dock and the property boundary as well as
details of other properties such as Wanniassa homestead in h[...]primary source given his distance
from the events of 1841.

“8 This plan while not catalogued in the[...]150, A0 aperture card 5254.

No doubt the absence of this plan from the catalogue meant that hi[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (176)[...]d by his trustee and although production and sale of wool is
recorded, no costs of construction are allocated up to 1848. It would h[...]sold, as he would lose the building and the value of any money spent
constructing it. The arrival of the Davis family after Larmer’s map of 1841 may have
prompted the construction of the Lanyon buildings, but why then are they not listed in
Wright’s bankruptcy file? The Court inventory of Wright’s landed property is
reproduced below:

Table 7 Inventory of Wright’s Property

Description of the Property Lanyon

Cottage dwelling, huts, farm[...]due to their inherently
greater value? It is also of interest to note that none of Wright’s assets on

Cuppacumbalong seem to be r[...]t is a field sketch and needs to be redrawn. Two of Wright’s
buildings are dimensioned and the main axis of the largest is known as being S65° W
or 245 °ma[...]l have the same general axis
and a simple reading of building alignment will assist in providin[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (177)[...]not) depicted on Larmer’s plan. The dimensions of some of the
buildings are shown in links (as was customar[...]. There are three
dimensions:

Table 8 Conversion of dimensions on the Larmer Plan

90 links 59[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (178)Figure 6.9 Illustration of Lanyon homestead, September 1869
Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (179)[...]is matter Turner and Lawson’s excellent summary of the
evidence relating to the Lanyon outbuildings[...]the rectangle is indicating the general location of
Lanyon homestead rather than a specific hut. Thi[...]the current buildings dimensions do not match any of those on Larmer’s plan.
Turner and Lawson note[...]ston-Gregson (1982) excavated in the northern end of the building. He identified
some fifteen stratigraphic units and made an interpretation of the sequence ofof the building, presumably as it had not been seen[...]escribed to be used to verify the
suggested dates of building construction. Based on the plans of the building the
longest axis does not conform to[...]ought to be original. The dimensions and position of the building
are incompatible with the evi[...]
Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (180)[...]uilding
appears to be mentioned in the conveyance of lot 64 from Charles Roemer to Andrew
Cunningham o[...]er and Lawson are rightly sceptical about the use of this building as a
“gaol” (1994), the buildin[...]a stone structure located some 600m. to
the north of Lanyon on Portion 61. Although out of the frame of Larmer’s sketch, Ray
makes the point that if ex[...]n (1979) as occurring on the site.
Most important of these is Homestead Three. This is illustrated in the picture of
Lanyon in the Illustrated Sydney News (12/09/1869[...]the main homestead (see Figure 6.9). Excavations of the building
site in 1979 located a cistern but no evidence of this earlier building (Winston-
Gregson 1979). Ra[...]tion that early buildings are stone in
his dating of the stratigraphic sequence. Later excavations claim to have found
evidence of this building but the final reports are still being searched for. Based on my
interpretation of the Larmer map this building is in the right loca[...]inks) long. Unfortunately, the precise dimensions of
“Homestead Three” are not available to verify[...]e modern
homestead which may explain why evidence of their existence has not been found.

As well as the buildings, there is the garden of Mary Wright. This is claimed to be
located to the west and south of building one (Winston-Gregson 1979:32). Evidence
of the garden as being Mary Wright’s has not been presented. Indeed the study of the
gardens at Lanyon largely ignores the Wright era (Lehany 1986). From the Bench of
Magistrates reports there was a garden where vege[...], it is difficult to provide convincing evidence of any extant Wright era
building at Lanyon. Thanks to Larmer’s field notes, we have a visual idea of the
morphology of Lanyon in 1840. Unfortunately it is different to[...]o
the current buildings on the site. If the views of Ray were accepted, that the early
building[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (181)[...]not being able to be related back to
the evidence of Larmer’s plan. They were not there in 1840 to b[...]f the archaeological work
had addressed the issue of the dating of the buildings and had been more extensive
(and be[...]Wright’s
native Derbyshire with its collection of stone buildings around a courtyard” (Blair and[...]during the
Wright era, we turn now to the reading of the Lanyon landscape in the period of
Wright’s occupancy (1834-1848).

Boundaries

La[...]rs were settling and the area was under a variety of land tenures. Initially
Lanyon was the land purchased by Lanyon and the Wright’s in 1835, some of which
was squatted on by Timothy Beard. Fairly soon thereafter squatting across the limits
of location occurred, certainly by 1836 when Wright[...]move Webb on. It
is likely that Wright was master of all the land in the Lanyon bowl. The good grazing
land up to the edges of the ranges (probably where the trees began to get[...]wn as Boroombah and Cuppacumbalong
and the limits of location were largely ignored. The boundaries of all these runs rested
in the east and west on nat[...]rd) were not as clear—cut. However, no evidence of
disputes has been found.

Apart from the core of Lanyon there is evidence that Wright also utilise[...]region for his sheep especially during the years of drought when he, like other
squatters, put his sheep on the road in search of fodder.

In 1843 Boroombah was separated o[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (182)184

Cuppacumbalong would have been made. The separation of the two runs or estates
was easy as the river for[...]ting runs.

Land uses and activities

The pattern of land use at Lanyon divides into two functions. Firstly, there was the use
of land for agriculture. This involved the creating of gardens, sowing and reaping of
crops as well as some dairying activities. It is difficult to assess the importance of this
in comparison with Wright’s grazing activities. Obviously, it supplied the needs of his
assignees and employees for food but there ma[...]rly agriculture cautions the historian to be wary of the greater
emphasis placed in the histories on sheep rather than agriculture which was a greater
component of the economy (Raby 1996).

The second use was grazing, mainly sheep, although Wright also had a herd of cattle.
Sheep numbers seem to be variable between[...]ulture, grazing was spread over the entire extent of Wright’s domain but with
less intensive impact.

Patterns of spatial organisation

With the differing type of landuse came differing patterns of spatial organisation.
With agriculture space was[...]carted
somewhere (as Joseph Keenhan’s defiance of Wright lost a day’s wheat carrying).
Presumably[...]uildings. The homestead would have
been the focus of all agricultural work providing accommodation for[...]or equipment and produce, as well as the location of the dairy and the pigs. The bell
was rung to indi[...].

Sheep grazing was organised around the concept of the flock: some hundreds of sheep
(flocks of 400-500 are reported in the Bench Books) tended b[...]hurdles at night to prevent their wandering. Some of these flocks seem to be
relatively mobile, other[...]walked the flocks each day. For
Lanyon, we know of flocks established in the Naas valley, three mil[...]tead at Lanyon. The homestead provided the source of
supplies for the flocks and their shepherds. The[...]shom and returned to their pasture.

The location of each flock was determined by the terrain[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (183)[...]ies. Based on what is known about later patterns

of occupation (see Chapter Seven) it is suggested th[...]Boroombah, near Lambrigg, in Sawyers Gully, north of Naas and at

Binda. The density of occupation seems to be low in comparison with lat[...]was grassland and open forest
located in a series of flats surrounded by steep ridges. Wright and Lan[...]n naturally
occurring grasslands with no evidence of attempts to “improve” on the grasslands.
The[...]culture near Lanyon homestead at the “bottom” of the “Lanyon
bowl” was in contrast cleared and cultivated.

The positioning of the homestead complex in the landscape is on a ri[...]unt Tennent. However the current buildings —all of the
Cunningham era - are orientated with their fr[...]. I think the effect might be to give a full view of the homestead as one
comes down the drive and the[...]s currently
obscured. The well known illustration of Lanyon from 1869 shows this effect (Figure
6.9) a[...]Mount Tennent is foreshortened.

The orientation of Wright’s buildings, I think, would be much the same for two main
reasons. Firstly, once the orientation of buildings is established on a site it is difficu[...]rack in from the road.

This would place the rear of Wright’s buildings towards the fields, hardly[...]or intimidating position if this was a landscape of coercion or dominance,
but convenient for farm work. The same point could be argued for the actual position
of the homestead, which is not on the most prominent[...]rather than on the landscape. Thus, the relevance of Farquhar
McKenzie’s comment quoted earlier in t[...]nd refined.

Circulation networks

The geography of Lanyon largely controls the circulation ne[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (184)[...]cross the Murrumbidgee at Tharwa. Larmer’s plan of 1841 shows the road
more or less in its present p[...]sed it,
forcing travellers onto the surveyed line of road (see Chapter Seven).

The major barrier was the crossing of the Murrumbidgee. The difficulty lay in the
variable nature of the river's flow. Generally, it was crossable an[...]d at Point Hut. From Point Hut the northern parts of
Cuppacumbalong around Conlon’s Corner could be[...]Judging from the evidence in the
Deposition Books of the Queanbeyan Bench of Magistrates (State Records NSW
4/5650) it was pos[...]erseer”
were mounted and could travel a circuit of the out-stations in a day, provided crossing
the[...]om Lanyon.

Boundary demarcations

The boundaries of Lanyon would have been the natural features of the landscape
marking the limits of areas occupied by Wright’s flocks. It seems from Larmer’s map
that on the freehold land the boundaries of each allotment were marked by blazes on
trees and ploughed furrows. Fences of some sort would have marked the boundaries
of the gardens and farmed areas.

No phycial or documentary evidence of boundary markers delineating entrance onto
the La[...]been found.

Vegetation Related to Land Use

Part of the appeal of grazing in the Lanyon area was that the gr[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (185)[...]ld have occurred previously with the introduction of
cattle and sheep to the Kangaroo grass (Themeda australis) grasslands of the Canberra
plains. Grazing would have brought t[...]grazing may have opened the way for the invasion of other species but

the canopy of the Kangaroo grass would have obscured this from[...]Pryor 1954: 176-177).

Secondly the fire regimes of the Canberra region would have been disrupted and[...]occasional burning to prevent the vigorous
canopy of the Kangaroo grass from shading the patches betwe[...]ntact burning (1954). There is however, no record of squatting fire regimes in
this period.

These ch[...]More obvious vegetation changes were the clearing of a paddock for wheat and
the cultivation of other paddocks for vegetables close by Lanyon hom[...]econdary cluster would have been on the west
bank of the Murrumbidgee where Cuppacumbalong homestead w[...]at there was a garden in the Wright era, evidence of this garden is hard to find. Ray
notes that in t[...]and it is suggested that the
garden was the work of Mary Wright (1981 :36). Lehany’s conservation analysis of
the Lanyon gardens and grounds unfortunately starts in 1849, presumably as there was
no evidence of earlier gardens (Lehany 1986). '20 All that can b[...]e was possibly a garden.

CONCLUSION

The process of pioneering was one of in-filling between a loose network of pastoral
runs. Lhotsky in 1834 noted Herbert at N[...]been no archaeological study looking for evidence of Wright’s garden.
'2' No historian has establish[...]tled at Naas or why he took up land there instead of
the more extensive plains to the north.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (186)[...]locality in 1834. Interestingly the first action of Wright and
Lanyon in creating their estate was to[...]t on
vacant Crown Land as did Wright.

The impact of pioneering was minimal and gradual. But there was little in the
landscape save the obvious presence of sheep, their shepherds and the homestead to
indic[...]. The squatting landscape at this stage consisted of the Aboriginal
landscape plus sheep (and minus th[...]to
Sydney by sea. I suspect that after the ending of assignment in July 1841 Wright
scaled back his ag[...]squatter to have
freehold land — George Russell of the Clyde Company was another— but generally
sq[...]s was partly because they were outside the
limits of settlement, but even when the pre-emptive right w[...]to what extent can Lanyon be seen
as a landscape of captive labour (1993a; 1993b)? It seems that they view the
landscape as one likely to contain evidence of surveillance and coercion of the
convicts, which is in line with their view that Wright had to coerce his workers. They
write of Wright’s homestead providing unobstructed views of the barn and
Stockyards, cultivation areas, orchards and gardens, all of which were convict
workplaces (1993:85). The ston[...]roviding “a vantage

point for the surveillance of Wright’s out-stations at what is now the Naas-[...]would have been more convincing had their reading of the landscape
paid more attention to the historic[...]s, which is obscured by Mount
Tennent and a ridge of 700m elevation and Boroombah which is behind a ridge of
elevation no less than 600 111. Moreover, by igno[...]ly without realising its importance. The evidence of coercion in
the landscape does not exist.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (187)189

The point about the Lanyon “landscape of captive labour” is that sheep grazing by its
na[...]rvised at all times. As
can be seen by the number of absent or stray convicts, it was very easy to abs[...]iate with his
assigned convicts some shared sense of responsibility for his enterprise. The
differenti[...]common practice in the convict era - was one form of
incentive. Possibly, there was some form of unofficial wage system or bonus such as a
share of the increase in flocks. Whatever the system was,[...]e documentary record, except through the absences of overtly coercive
buildings and structures.

My reading of the Bench Books is that there was a general decre[...]rly 1840 with the
inquiry into the Administration of Justice in Queanbeyan (see Appendix Three). After[...]We know from Wright’s appointment as a Justice of the Peace and his purchase of
freehold land that he was a man of property and status. His letter of the 15th
September 1836, asking that Webb be remo[...]licit claim that he was respectable and deserving of consideration in this matter. In
his role as a Justice of the Peace on the Queanbeyan Bench of Magistrates Wright was
an important person in the[...]ndix Three) I argue that Wright misplays the role of J. P. and, by inspecting a
convict’s back afie[...]lity
leaving him in an uncertain position. Echoes of this are seen in the historigraphic
treatment of Wright as a flogging magistrate.

What can be seen of Wright’s social status in the Lanyon landscape? The size of the
estate is one indication of Wright’s economic position both before and afte[...]en a
homestead and cultivated fields and flocks of sheep. Whether it was well husbanded is
not clear. Certainly there was the stain of bankruptcy which split the estate causing
Wright[...]e read from the landscape if more precise details of Wright's
house, outbuildings, and gardens were available. But in this we are hampered by the
confusion of previous historical and archaeological research.[...]nsolvent Estates
2/8743 Packet 858, State Records of NSW). This list shows that Wright could muster
at[...]table and setting for 12. If the crockery was not of sufficient value to
be listed as a dining set, t[...]have added a nice touch to the room. These items of material culture

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (188)[...]ertainly
maintaining appearances even at the edge of the limits of location.

To summarise, Wright emerges as an amb[...]ility and to that extend was rewarded with public office.
Nevertheless, he then misplayed his role as a J. P. The fact that many of his convicts
were prosecuted and some escaped is[...]ch resulted in him being caught with a high level of debt when
the speculative boom in sheep busted. B[...]ader context Wright certainly fits into the role of a respectable squatter both
from the point of his estate and from what we can glean from[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (189)INTRODUCTION

The de Salis family estate of Cuppacumbalong Run and Coolemon Run was located to
the south west of Canberra on the Murrumbidgee River. The aim of this chapter is to
look in detail at the process of husbanding the run in the face of the selection
movement. The availability of detailed selection records, the diaries of George de
Salis, and the comparatively unaltered nature of the current landscape allows the

process of creating, husbanding and defending the de Salis e[...]one.
As discussed earlier, especially in the case of Lanyon, the pioneering period of
squatting created landscapes that were little modified from those occupied by the
Aborigines. The period of husbanding the de Salis estate created a more dis[...]ltural landscape, driven in part from the process of maintaining the run and making
a profit, and par[...]runs and creating the de Salis estate. The impact of the selection strategy on the
landscape of the run is then discussed.

In the previous chapter, the establishment of the Lanyon and Cuppacumbalong runs
by Wright and[...]er the Murrumbidgee River (and outside the limits of location), west from
Lanyon run. Cuppacumbalong was part of the Lanyon estate. The Commissioner of
Crown Lands listed “slab and bark huts” on Cu[...]e located in the Tharwa area as this
was the site of the best ford over the Murrumbidgee River. In 184[...]841.

Wright’s insolvency resulted in the focus of his pastoral activities changing to
Cuppacumbalon[...]ra Run. Although Cunningham had little in
the way of capital in those years, he was able to negotiate the purchase of the Lanyon
estate from Wright’s creditor[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (190)The de Salis family

The origins of the de Salis family have been outlined in an info[...]witzerland. A Peter von Salis, a hereditary count of the Holy Roman Empire,
founded the English branch of the family. Peter’s son Jerome, settled in England and
married the Honourable Mary Fane, eldest daughter of Viscount Fane. By various acts
and licences, the[...]the bar and was involved in the business affairs of the Indian merchants Jardine
Matheson and Company[...]arn farming, as an outdoor life was thought to be of some benefit to his health.

After learning shee[...]In 1844, he married
Charlotte McDonald, daughter of Captain McDonald who owned the neighbouring
run of Bongongo. In 1842, William de Salis was employed by Jardine Matheson to go
to Australia to sort out some of their business affairs. William arrived on the Ke[...]nd was offered a partnership in the Sydney branch of Jardine Matheson. In
Sydney, William de Salis rapidly rose to prominence through the success of his
business activities. He was a friend of Governor Gipps and a prominent member of
various boards including the Union Bank. In 1848,[...]s world, particularly in England,
would have been of great use to Leopold de Salis.

With the retirement of his partner Smythe to England, Leopold expanded h[...]sing his brother-in-law Colin McDonald as manager of various runs. He
started a family, his children b[...]mbalong as a temporary home but on receiving news of his mother death he
decided to stay in the district.

Leopold de Salis was a different type of squatter in terms of his social and economic
position compared to Wrig[...]im to aristocracy. He was well educated, somewhat of an
intellectual and brought up in a well to do en[...]arrative history as well the de Salis family view of their ancestry.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (191)[...]ignation on 5th January 1898 afier some 23
years of service. In contrast, Wright and Cunningham’s p[...]gures in their time in the district, de
Salis was of importance on a statewide basis. '23 He had numer[...]s and Sir William Stawell. As an appointed member of the
Legislative Council, de Salis was in the colonial equivalent of the House of Lords.

Brief overview of runs held by de Salis

In order to assist the discussion of the de Salis’ holdings it is useful to outline the
history of the holdings they purchased (Figure 7.1). The fi[...]pacumbalong purchased in 1855.

In 1869, the runs of Naas and Naas Valley were purchased. These runs were part of
the estate built up by the Herbert family and Tho[...]region and sold their properties to a partnership of Mendleson and Joseph both
were Jewish grocers mov[...]that are not quite clear (there were allegations of theft), and these
seem to be in part racially bas[...]Mendleson and Joseph went broke and the
property of Naas and Naas Valley124 was sold to the de Salises in 1869. This extended
the original run of Cuppacumbalong to the south.

In January 1872, th[...](i. e. after 1872), the de Salis estate consisted of
Cuppacumbalong, Naas, Naas Valley and Coolemon ru[...]overseeing all the de Salis estate. However, one of the interesting aspects of
reading the de Salis diaries is the increasing re[...]diaries recount George’s management,
initially of the summer grazing at Coolemon, and his first sh[...]75, which
was commemorated by a poem. By the time of his marriage in 1878, George was in
effect the manager of Cuppacumbalong and Coolemon, being paid a percentage of the
wool clip and a bonus for increase of stock. In some aspects of management,
particularly in the selection strateg[...]Salises are lesser figures in the historiography of Canberra. 1 think this is because
Lanyon h[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (192)[...]some

land at Maitland although the exact status of the land is unclear. Certainly, it was not
part of their farming estate.

In broad terms, the estate at Canberra consisted of a series of flats along the margins
of the Murrumbidgee River. The flats are stepped in[...]surrounding hills
at around 1500m. The elevation of the Coolemon Plain means that it is subject to ha[...]t it is well watered and provided a
spring growth of grass. Thus, Coolemon (along with other runs in the area) provided
good conditions for summer grazing.

Loss of the estate

The precise circumstances of the collapse of the de Salis estate are not clear. ‘26 It
seems[...]essful, resulting in substantial losses.
As a way of raisin capital the Cuppacumbalong estate was mortgaged to the Union
Bank of Australia1 7 for £69,956-13-5 (Lands Title Office Old System Number 450
Book 444). Just prior[...]lises (totalling 5458 acres),
presumably as a way of increasing their equity. Details of the de Salis estate at its
greatest extent were l[...]diaries for
that time give little precise detail of what was occurring. This is because Leopold de
Sa[...]ueensland runs, but the drought reduced the value of the runs and more importantly
made it difficult to get cattle to market (presumably because of lack ofof the estate by late 1893, although it is
difficul[...]the property until the

'25 Although the failure of the Queensland venture bankrupted the de Salises[...]state or why it went
bust. Presumably the drought of the 18905 was one factor.

'26 There is little in[...]lis‘ brother William had been a London director of the Union Bank.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (193)land was sold to the partnership of Frederick Campbell of Yarralumla, Colonel
(retired), Francis Selwyn Cam[...]the property was transferred to them (Land Titles
Office Old System Title Book 656 Folio 843). At the[...]confidence in the environment. When the extremes ofof his life. Leopold de Salis was in his late seventies and

was too old to see the ending of the drought and his children survive and prosper[...]mon Pastoral Holding (No. 506) under the Land Act of 1884. In the section
below the landscape forming[...]as a grazing property and to identify the nature of the land. Apart from
showing how the run worked,[...]gy outlined

in Chapter Two, however for the sake of non-repetition some categories have been
merged w[...]uivalent were
destroyed in the Garden Palace Fire of 1882. The only surviving information of the
pre-1884 run boundaries is the run descriptions published in the Government Gazettes
of 1848. These descriptions formed the basis for the[...]s issued to
squatters from 1848. The descriptions of the de Salis owned runs are as follows:

No 3

Atkinson William

No 35

Name of Run Cooleman

Estimated Area — 8,000 acr[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (194)[...]lofty mountains.

Chippindall [sic], Thomas

Name of Run Naas

Estimated Area — 15,360 acres

Estima[...]600 cattle

Bounded on the north by the stations of William Herbert and James
Wright; on the east by a range of hills dividing it from the run of James
Wright, until it joins a station belonging to James Booth, which station
forms the southern boundary of the run; on the west bounded by a range
situated about half a mile to the westward of a running stream, dividing it
from the runs of Edward Seveme and William Herbert.

No 66

Herbert, William

Name of Run Naas and Orarell

Estimated Area — 6,000 ac[...]zing Capabilities — 700 cattle

Bounded on part of the north by an imaginary line along the ridge of a
spur of Mount Tenant,'29 dividing the land now described[...]occupied by William Davis; on the remaining
part of the north along the ridge of another spur of Mount Tenant bearing
nearly east to a small strea[...]from Stony
creek sheep station, in the occupation of James Wright; on the east by an
imaginary line ru[...]e little River
called the comer hole to the ridge of a range about half a mile from the
dwelling house[...]d Gudgenby now occupied by Edward
Seveme: on part of the west by ranges called Bimberri Ranges; and on the
remaining part of the west by ranges dividing the now described lands
from Boorooroomba run.

No 188

Wright, James

Name of Run Cuppacumbalong

Estimated Area — 15,000 acr[...]d Hill Creek
to Conlan’s comer for four fifths of the distance the river is inaccessible;
upon the north from Mr M’Quoids run by a line of marked trees; upon the

'29 Mount Tennent,[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (195)[...]avis’ run by Paddy’s creek and the north spur of Mount
Tenant, from Mr Herberts run by the south spur of Mount Tenant and for a
short distance by Gudenby[...]Hill Creek, thus

almost forming an obtuse angle of which the Murrumbidgee river is the
base.

As can be seen the descriptions of the runs are not geographically precise. There ar[...]illiam Herbert was doing. Finally, in the absence of formal maps and
indeed any form of settlement, in some cases definable locations are often difficult to
find.130 The description of Coolemon is a good example as it is accurate but[...]properly surveyed in the period after the passing of
the Crown Lands Act of 1884. This required the dividing of pastoral runs in to
“resumed” and “leasehol[...]ned there were no major changes in the boundaries of the runs and the
de Salis estate varied only with the purchase of runs in 1869 and 1872.

Land Uses and Activities[...]eep grazing on the flats and
hillslopes and mobs of cattle in the surrounding hills. The sheep were p[...]at Queanbeyan and Goulbum. There were small areas of cultivated land,
mostly fodder for the stock and[...]elated to land use

The position in the landscape of the runs created in the general area around
Cuppa[...]Spring Gully (now known as

Sawyers Gully), part of the Naas Valley, Reedy Creek valley and the western bank of
the Murrumbidgee.

The original Cuppacumbalong run took in an area of undulating gullies running down
from the ridge line of Clear Hill (an extension of the Bullen Range), east to the
Murrumbidgee. The[...]udgenby River near Tharwa.I32 On the western side of the
ridge is the valley called Spring Gully (now[...]at a formal county map was produced and positions of features such as
Mount Tennent accurately establi[...]'32 Cuppacumbalong is supposed to mean “meeting of the waters”.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (196)[...]g to the west

, Mount Tennent. The eastern spurs of Mount Tennent create a small gorge through

which[...]am the valley widens out and
there is a good area of flat between Mount Tennent and the Gudgenby River. The
Clear Hill ridge runs into the northern end of the Cullen Range. The Cullen Range
between the Gudgenby River and the Mun'umbidgee also formed part of
Cuppacumbalong. In this area, the range falls qui[...]Range, the Reedy Creek catchment created a number
of flats suitable for grazing. Thus, Cuppacumbalong took in four large areas of flats
and valley bottoms suitable for sheep grazing as well as a large amount of frontage
along the Murrumbidgee, Gudgenby, and Pa[...]ers.

0f the other runs, Naas Valley took in part of the catchment of the Naas River
including most of the open flats. Similarly, Naas took in flats a[...]Valley. Gudgenby took in a flat at the junction of several creeks with the
Gudgenby River. Boroombah[...]iver as well as some hills encompassed by a curve of Paddy’s River.

The name Coolemon possibly refers to the shape of the run in the landscape, the run
boundaries being mountain ranges give the run the shape of a Coolemon dish. Wilson
citing no authority claim[...]e (1 968: 109),

which is plausible'”

in Or of course Coolemon might be a place in Scotland.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (197)[...]ng

The landscape comprised rolling granite hills of the Mount Kelly Uplands with steep
rocky slopes l[...]ite steep and rocky, lacking the gassy vegetation of the flats and lacking in

. permanent water.

' The poor quality of the valley slopes and ridge crests for sheep graz[...]local farmers in the Select Committee an Exchange of
Land, Cuppacumbalong Run, Queanbeyan District (Se[...]nor streams ensuring a good water supply.
Because of the flats relatively shallow gradients (0 to 3%),[...]o doubt kept up the burning to promote
new growth of fodder.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (198)[...]y in the hills. Due to
the shallow soils and lack of water this country was generally considered secon[...]as more closed forest,
which did not allow growth of grass and was unsuitable for sheep, although catt[...]her essential element in squatting, was much less of a problem in the
region than it was in the Wester[...]e junction with the Gudgenby River, is in an
area of semi-gorges with steep descents to the river. The[...]s Department that the slopes were too steep to be of practical use for watering
sheep and Figure 7.3 makes the point. Thus while the run included many miles of
frontage to rivers and streams a lot of it was not useable.

Finally, it should be noted[...]was useful for summer grazing,
due to the hazard of snowfall and frost it could not be grazed all yea[...]ng
ranges.

L" The de Salises had the benefit of the advice from Thomas Fishlock, an employ[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (199)203

The de Salis estate comprised three classes of grazing land, the flats which were first
class l[...]ion, at

Coolemon the de Salises has a large area of alpine grassland available for about half
the yea[...]iptions in the Government Gazette, the boundaries of Cuppacumbalong
are mainly natural features such a[...]main ridge from Mount Tennent towards the centre of the photograph,
then turns north down a gully to Paddy’s River. The use of clearly definable
topographic features such as r[...]rd and Congwarra seems to have been a marked line of
trees running west from Conlan’s Corner, which was fenced by 1874.

Throughout the history of Cuppacumbalong as recorded in the de Salis diaries there is
only one mention of a boundary dispute between de Salis and the neighbouring
squatters. This occurred during the fencing of the boundary between Cuppacumbalong
and Boroombah[...]o him. The dispute was resolved by the patriarchs of both families,
Leopold de Salis and Charles McKea[...]d Boroombah changing
circa 1860 by mutual consent of McKeahnie and de Salises. In a letter of 27th Nov
1883, George de Salis explains the wrong positioning of a conditional purchase
(Portion 79) in relation t[...]y, because the surveyor “naturally was
ignorant of the official boundary of Cuppacumbalong being different from that
adjusted 20 years ago between the owners of the adjoining runs” (Folio 83/ 10308

Lands Dep[...]/ 10308 cor
SRNSW Ref 10/20765).

Another example of boundary adjustment was at Coolemon where John Mc[...]Salises to
fence the boundary in exchange for use of the “Peppercorn side of our ranges” for five
years (de Salis diaries 6[...]boundaries were not fenced. Traditionally
flocks of sheep were kept within range of a shepherd and where mixing of separate
flocks from different owners was a pote[...]ing flocks from different runs was seen as a way of transmitting
disease such as scab. The invention of the drafting gate in the 18405 was of great
assistance in sorting out the inevitably mi[...]on their run. However, there are numerous reports of McKeahnie’s

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (200)[...]Boroombah

cattle and horses (as well as accounts of stray Cunningham cattle) being found on
Cuppacumb[...]traying further.‘36

Figure 7.6 shows the plans of the leasehold and resumed areas for the
Cuppacumbalong run, created at some point in 1885 or 1886. It is of interest in the
context of this discussion as it shows the extent and nature of boundary fencing. A log
fence divides Freshford f[...]t Tennent a
six-wire fence ran along the boundary of the Naas Run until it reached the Orroral and
Gudgenby River junction. There seems to be a short section of log fence and then the
wire fence continues along the west bank of the Gudgenby River until the southern
boundary is[...]hould not have yarded
then considering the number of his cattle that always have been on our run" (de[...]Salis diaries it seems that a considerable amount of time was spent chasing after stray

horses.
”7 The mixture of fencing probably is a direct response to t[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (201)of the Parish of Murray and of Coolemon Pastoral
Holding was made down the east bank of Peppercorn Creek. Ultimately the mistake
would ha[...]mbalong across the Murrumbidgee, along the valley of the Naas and
Gudgenby rivers and over the ranges,[...]Tharwa was situated above the main crossing place of
the Murrumbidgee. The de Salises maintained their[...]es. The de Salis diaries record a continual
flow of people up and down the road and across the ford.

There was seasonal movement of sheep and cattle to and from the alpine areas for[...]lises moved sheep (there were quite large flocks of up to
10,000 sheep) up onto Coolemon during the summer (usually after shearing). As well,
smaller mobs of cattle were moved down from Coolemon for sale. The movement of
stock was always a matter of concern as out-of-control stock could damage property
and infect other flocks with disease. Moreover the question of compensation for stock
eating grass was important, so the government set up a system of travelling stock
routes and stock reserves. Movin[...]head to squatters to arrange a convenient passage of stock through runs. It is
clear from the de Salis diaries that Mr. West of Yaouk run, on the stock route to
Coolemon, was no[...]ong traditionally used routes. This was the cause of some ill feeling
between the community and the Cunninghams. In matters of roads, the de Salis family
always took the view t[...]nd later the Campbells.

There was also a network of smaller tracks between runs that were used mainly[...]n, the riders went via the Orroral valley and one of the “gaps” in the main
Brindabella Range. '38[...]o be little historical or archaeological evidence of boundary markers
other than the fences that would[...]ndary markers

'38 This is more or less the route of the modern Alpine walking track.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (202)[...]have used some physical feature
to mark the start of the de Salis estate. Crossing the river at Tharwa[...]to Cuppacumbalong. Crossing depended
on the level of the river. Often it was fordable for carts and bu[...]ering their territory. This allowed them a degree of warning about potential

selectors and about “Inspectors of Conditional Purchases” and other officials who
would pose problems if not handled properly.

Patterns of Spatial Organisation

The form of Cuppacumbalong as purchased by the de Salises consisted of four flats
with “stations” established in th[...]9 Cuppacumbalong station is located in the centre of the four flats just
below where Spring Station C[...]e original Cuppacumbalong Run. From the estimates of time taken to

traverse the landscape in George de Salis’ diaries it took a quarter of a day to get to
each station.

The sheep-farming[...]as the terrain was too difficult. To go from any of the stations one

would have to go back virtually[...]the next
station (Figure 7.8).

With the purchase of Naas and Naas Valley in 1869 this network of stations expanded
to include the extensive flats[...]t that Cuppacumbalong was no longer at the centre of the run.
Naas homestead was in fact at the centre of the flats such as Thomson’s, Binda, Hal[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (203)[...]ngly prepared the garden. However, with the death of Charlotte de
Salis in February 1878, Leopold de S[...]they remained there. Naas therefore became
a sort of office where someone could stay overnight or during the shearing season.

Thus Naas was the working centre of Cuppacumbalong run. Sheep were mustered for
shear[...]8705. This is not surprising as the children were of roughly the
same age. Social contact diminished as they all married and assumed managerial roles
of the stations where their views often conflicted.[...]“we decided
that the grave will be on the point of the hill overlooking the junction of the rivers, a
spot where Rodolph would often sit[...]bruary 1878 she was buried on the right hand side of Rodolph. Later in April 1878
Leopold visited the[...]ental planting. The graves were an important part of George and
Mary’s life especially as their fir[...]hreatens to tell “Papa".

”2 The burial place of the de Salis employees reflects to some d[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (204)212

churchyard at Canberra but George wrote “neither of us liked the idea of leaving the
little thing alone when it had a plac[...]ges to the de Salis family during their ownership of
Cuppacumbalong and Coolemon estates. The first w[...]nd was to
defend the estate against the challenge of selection. The latter task was the more
important[...]g the run from selection meant the transformation of the land from leasehold
to freehold, that is the purchase of land. Government regulations in effect prevented
the wholesale transformation of squatting runs into freehold and, even if they were
allowed the minimum price of £1 per acre, purchasing the run outright would h[...]st selection meant trying to secure the key areas of the run by using the land
legislation so that selectors did not get them. This secured the land as part of the de
Salis estate. Thus the process of defending the run and creating the de Salis estat[...]) and added to the de Salis estate.

This section of the chapter discusses the process of defending the run from selection
as well as creat[...]d de Salis wrote to the Acting Chief Commissioner of
Crown Lands:

“Sir,

I have the honour as lessee of the run of Cuppacumbalong in the
Murrumbidgee district to ap[...]ase under my pre-emptive
right as per Chapter III of H.M.’s Order in Council of March 9th 1847 of
certain portions of my said run - viz - twelve quarter sections of 160 acres
each or thereabouts in that portion of the run known as Cuppacumbalong
and six quarter sections in that portion of the run known as Binda. And I
request you will direct the commissioning of the proper surveyors to
inspect and measur[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (205)[...]in Albury,

in March 1860. He allocated the task of surveying the portions to Surveyor Edward

Fisher[...]ork. Fisher comments that there was a

difference of nearly one degree between his instrument and that of Licensed Surveyor

Thompson’s who marked out Th[...]a year to do

the survey is unclear). His letter of the 22 May 1861 to the Surveyor General sets out[...]“Sir,

In compliance with your instructions of the 23rd March 1860 No 60/450 I
have the honour to transmit for your approval under a separate cover a
Plan of 6 portions of land containing an aggregate area of 1543 acres
applied for purchase under pre-emptive right by Mr Leopold Fane de Salis
in virtue of his Licensed Run called Cuppacumbalong in the County of
Cowley, and Murrumbidgee District.

2.- In connection with the area measured which is 543 acres in excess of
that to which Mr de Salis would be entitled under the terms of your
Circular of the 3lst Jan last No 134 I would respectfully inform you I
could obtain no information respecting which of these portions Mr de
Salis considered of the least value as he was absent from home when I[...]surveyed a greater area in proportion to the size of this Run than
was allowed by your Circular No 134[...]apted for sub-division into small farms
(than any of the other portions) in the event of Tharwa Township
progressing favourably, but at th[...]to settle on this reserve as the small
population of this portion of the District is scattered, the area of land
suitable for cultivation is limited, the adjacent country is generally of a
Mountainous character difficult to traverse ev[...]almost impassible, and since the partial failure of the Kiandra gold

fields the settlers have not a ready market for the disposal of their
produce.”

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (206)[...]3642)

The plan M161-1457, together with the plan of Tharwa reserve T 1792, documents the
nature and extent of de Salises improvements on Cuppacumbalong.

The L[...]eems
that the intention was to survey the balance of land claimed by de Salis, however
Fisher had been[...]“embraced all the land Mr de Salis was desirous of purchasing at the time of my
making these surveys” which is not exactly w[...]son, had issued the
regulation limiting the right of pre-emptive purchase to 640 acres (i. e. a square[...]er the
lands therein described are in the process of alienation to me” (Folio 62/ 13878,
Surveyor Ge[...]ould have been selected or sold while the process of obtaining the land
from the Lands Department was[...]eems that a William Thompson'44 had occupied part of de Salis pre-emptive
purchase. William Ferguson Thompson selected 40 acres of land “commencing at a
point on the west bank of the Little River about two miles North East from[...]ptember 1862 (CP 62/3709,
Lands Department - Head Office, Conditional Purchase Registers 1862, SRNSW[...]he is not mentioned in the
Biographical Register of the ACT. The land he took up was near de Salis’ pre-emptive
portion of 161 acres (i. e. Portion 9 Parish of Cuppacumbalong).

”3 This was to prevent large scale purchasing of runs by wealthy squatters before the onset of free
selection.

”4 Not to be confused w[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (207)[...]nag—.11” “2,-2.1 '

tive rights

10 Copy of Original plan of de Salis’ pre-emp

7

Figure

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (208)216

Leopold De Salis wrote to the Chief Commissioner of Crown lands complaining of
this on 13th October 1862 (Folio 62/ l 2981 Lands[...]partment about whether Thompson had selected
some of de Salises pre-emptive purchase. A note on the fo[...]spite Thompson’s
description in his application of land “more than a mile distant”, Thompson had[...]his Conditional Purchase did not intrude on
that of de Salises so it is clear that Thompson did not w[...]ember 1864 and the land became Portion 22, Parish of
Cuppacumbalong. The land was reported as not impr[...]on was then put up for sale
as Lot UU in the sale of the 6th May 1867 but apparently not bid for and r[...]as incorporated into Portion 115 and all
markings of the previous portion were deliberately obliterate[...]pting de Salises comment

“As however a portion of the same is occupied by one William Thomson
[sic] under colour of a conditional purchase, and as the Hon Secretary[...]lf his requisite consent towards initiating

”5 Of course there was no overall map of the Parish until the 18805 which would have confused
matters.

”6 This letter and the lapsing of the CP indicate that Thomson was not a lan[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (209)[...]s until I be put in full and peaceable possession of my said just
claim.”

(Folio 63/9068 Lands Depa[...]e on Boroombah, later granted as
Portion 4 Parish of Tharwa in 1860. Herbert applied for 160 acres on[...]Portion 33 Parish Naas in 1859. The sudden spurt of pre-emptive purchases
supports the notion that sq[...]l60-acre sections (some 2880 acres) to 6 sections of 1543 acres in
total. It seems that de Salis was n[...]re-emptively purchased, it contains a combination of flats and
improvements. Portion 1, Parish of Cuppacumbalong for example takes in Binda
Station and the larges area of flat in the Reedy Creek Catchment. Portions 3 and 5

[47 However this was not the end of the matter for on 30th July 1885 Leopold de Salis[...]iles No 85/ 15680 SRNSW Ref 10/3642).
On the face of it this was a fairly outrageous claim as de Salis[...]ant for over

twenty years during which time much of the good land was being taken up by conditional p[...]n within the Lands Department because by 1885 few officers
knew the details of the old Orders in Council. The Under Secretary fo[...]at the time and what
was the practice in respect of pre-emptive purchases no one is better conversant[...]Files No 85/ 15680 SRNSW Ref 10/3642).

Finch’s official reply (Folio not noted on papers) noted th[...]en current application. Finch also noted the lack of any discussion of de Salises claim
since the l860$ despite his comm[...]only to Thompson’s
occupation. Indeed the lack of protests after Fisher’s survey and only[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (210)Parish of Tharwa secure Spring Station by taking in important areas of flats in
Sawyers Gully.

The improvements shown[...]t

Portion 9 Cuppacumbalong Frontage to west bank of Gudgenby
River. Fenced garden and hut. This
was t[...]as
Thomsons.

Figures 7.11 to 7.14 are details of the plan of the pre-emptive purchases M161—1457
which show the layout of improvements and the landscape. Three of these areas were

surveyed in order to see whethe[...]od were
visible.

Portion 15, Tharwa was the site of extensive cultivation paddocks. Presumably these[...]mily and probably fodder for the horses. The
site of the paddocks is easily locatable however there is[...]gure 7.15)

Portion 1, Cuppacumbalong is the site of Binda Station, a swampy flat adjacent to
Reedy Creek. The station consisted of a hut and yards and included a fence running
from[...]e hut and yards were located on
the southern edge of a low ridge overlooking the creek and swamp. A brief survey of
the location found no evidence of the yards and fence. A flat area, possibly a hut site,
was located but there was no surface evidence of a building. Binda Station is often
stated to be on the site of “Ingledene” a farmhouse, located about 1km no[...]-14s7 Binda is on
Portion 1 although all evidence of the station has disappeared (Figure 7: 16).148

”8 The locals who could recite owners back to the turn of the century refused to believe that the de[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (211)Figure 7.15 Spring Gully site of cultivation paddock

Figure 7.16 Site of Binda Station (but platform is approximate[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (212)Figure 7.17 Site of outstation at Thompsons

Portion 9, Cuppacumba[...]small fenced
areas, one labelled garden. The site of the paddocks and house is easily found. The

fla[...]ks would have been is now grassed and no evidence of the
fences exists. The location of the hut was also inspected but all evidence of the hut has

disappeared (Figure 7:17).

The resu[...]h as flats survive, fences
and huts and evidence of cultivation are not visible on the ground surface.

It is difficult to know how much of the de Salis pre-emptive purchase strategy was
mi[...]aphy being suitable for the rectangular structure of land portions so that
strategically placed selections could secure the flats. To the north the wide expanse of
flats along the western side of the Murrumbidgee could not be secured by t[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (213)The village of Tharwa

Leopold de Salis’ exercise of his pre-emptive right was complicated by the creation of
the Village of Tharwa. In September 1860 a petition signed by 24 “inhabitants of the
town and District of Queanbeyan” was forwarded to the Minister for L[...]ic accommodation on the road to Kiandra, the bank of the river was suitable for a
township and that th[...]employees did not sign. Curiously neither did any of the McKeahnie or Herbert
families who might have[...]erve urgently
in October 1860, presumably because of the potential conflicts with de Salises pre-
emp[...]garden were located, which he noted has a record of being flooded.
(Folio 61/3895, Surveyor General[...]d File 62/989 SRNSW Ref 5/5510).
Thus the Village of Tharwa as surveyed took in the Cuppacumbalong hom[...]rians and archaeologists have at least the legacy of Thomson’s plan
which show the improvements and[...]the lots
that de Salis purchased and his estimate of the value of the improvements on them.

”9 The evidence of a previous reserve is mainly evidence in this fi[...]ble to find a gazettal date. There is no mention of the need to revoke a
previous reserve so perhaps the reserve was customary.

'50 Of course the Cunningham interest was secured, in th[...]Incidentally de Salis mentions an “irregularity of transfer”
between Wright and de Salis”[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (214)[...]4 11L” L90 ”nu”; fa , ram

Figure 7.18 Plan of Tharwa with allotments

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (215)[...]ived File 63/7591, SRNSW Ref 5/5510)

In the sale of allotments in Queanbeyan on 29“1 November 1862[...]sed by de Salis was withdrawn from sale. Lots 2-5 of Section 2 were sold to
Leopold de Salis at the up[...]aining lots were not bid for.

With the hindsight of 140 or so years, the proclamation of the village of Tharwa
allowed Leopold de Salis the opportunity to purchase an important part of his run and
safeguard it from selection. De Salis[...]ful neighbour” was Andrew Cunningham, the owner of the
Lanyon estate. To understand the basis of the conflict it is necessary to enter into a
sho[...]a gold rush. Kiandra is located to the south-west of the
study area, high in the Australian Alps. Gold[...]being from Cooma
to Kiandra. Cooma became a sort of regional supply depot to the goldfields and no
doubt the merchants of Cooma were well satisfied with their position. This of course
was to the detriment of merchants in Queanbeyan. Thus in the early[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (216)[...]customary route allowed by James Wright. In 1860, of course, it
was the one of the routes to Kiandra. In 1856 Andrew Cunningham[...]ld
de Salis and Andrew Cunningham largely because of the principle of non-enclosure of
roads which seems to have been a de Salis princip[...]to the Kiandra rush) about the rights and wrongs of the matter,
which eventually the Editor had to cease due to the length of the correspondence. It
seems that it was suspected that de Salis put Johnson up to it to test the legality of
matters. A long letter by “Andrew Tomahawk” w[...]tter by Leopold de Salis which accused Cunningham of
“vindictively putting up the reserve upon which[...]) on the Tharwa reserve notes that
in the absence of any traffic “except in the event of Kiandra reviving” it was unlikely
there would b[...]Kiandra proved to be another surface rush. It
is of interest that Leopold de Salis was determined to[...]er from the mid
18703 as he began to take on more of the management of the run, George de Salis
began to have his own id[...]eorge records riding beyond Gosson’s Beck (part of the southern
boundary of Cuppacumbalong) to look for any suitable land for[...]having his own views seems to have been a source of friction between
him and Leopold. On the 2"Cl Mar[...]is very anxious to take one on Cotters run a mile of so from the
boundary thinking it would be[...]
Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (217)227

land of our own not secured” (de Salis diary). This comment is particularly telling in
light of Campbell’s hostile selection on Coolemon.

The[...]by two considerations: firstly their
evaluation of the enviromnent. They had a good idea of which were the important
areas on the run to safe[...]gislation and regulations organised the selection of land. Section 13 of
the Crown lands Alienation Act (1861) allowed for between 40 to 320 acres of land to
be conditionally purchased and section 21[...]n a right to select up to 8
conditional purchase (of 40 acres each) and to select up to 320 acres as a[...]ed this to the
limit.

There is also the question of pre-emptive or conditional leases.155 These were
obtainable for owners of land in fee simple and extended to conditional pu[...]run anyway.

In the period following the passing of the Lands Acts in 1861 until 1872 the de Salis
fa[...]Portions 7 (240 acres) and 8
(320 acres), Parish of Tharwa were selected. Portion 7 added to the flats to the north
of Tharwa while Portion 8 took in flats to the south of Portion 5. A series of selections
were made to the north and south of Portion 1 Parish of Cuppacumbalong on Reedy

Creek in October 1862 an[...]nditional purchase records show that the purchase of this
land was not finalised until 1920!

Robert[...]s to connect Portion 7 with the
northern boundary of Cuppacumbalong but were misdescribed and ended in[...]lly no mention in the conditional purchase files of the de Salises having too many
conditional purcha[...]ere are queries about frontage, peacocking, value of improvements,
residence and so on.

'55 Un[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (218)[...]to the attempts to combat the hostile selections
of the Oldfield family (discussed below).

Conditio[...]e Crown Land Acts deliberately limited the amount of land taken up as a
conditional purchase to 320 ac[...]ect more land. In order to understand the process of taking
up the land the portions have been organised into series. A series of conditional
purchases consists of the original conditional purchase and the additio[...]e Salis dummies has been to look at a combination of the
conditional purchase file and conditional pu[...]is quite explicit about the process.

Three types of dummy were used by the de Salises. Firstly there[...]-in-law William
Bradshaw Smith selected on behalf of the de Salises.157

"6 This is how the Lands Depa[...]57 Elizabeth McKeahnie on Boroombah held a number of conditional purchases so daughters did hol[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (219)The second form of dummy selectors was made by people who seem to have the
status of “j ackaroos”.'58 They were inexperienced resp[...]ishlock and Gray were

buried in the outer circle of the de Salis graveyard, which indicates the closeness of
the relationship between them and their employers[...]ably Andrew Cunningham senior) and
getting a copy of the agreement (de Salis diaries 28th May 1873). L[...]eements on the 14"1 July 1875.
There is no record of any of the dummies refusing to give up their selection.[...]heep on their land,
thus maintaining the fiction of “bona fide” selection. Improvements on selec[...]de and paid for by the de Salises, as an analysis of the George de
Salis diaries shows. George is constantly directing improvements such as fencing,
erection of facilities such as salt sheds and stockyards and ring-barking. Much of this
work was undertaken by contractors as the du[...]ant
tasks as boundary riders/drovers.

An example of a dummy selection — Thomas Oldfield

Tom Oldfield, son of “old” Joe Oldfield, was born in 1851 and see[...]h July 1868.
These were portions 26 and 28 Parish of Tharwa and formed part of his father’s
selections (dealt with below). Tom[...]invented then.

'59 Arthur 1e Patonel was the son of Captain Henry le Patonel, ADC to Governor Lofius.

'60 Fishlock was a long-term resident of the district having worked for the Palmers[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (220)[...]re a hut valued at £14 and ring-barking to value of £2.
An inspectors report was called for (Folio 7[...]erred for comment and was included in
the Gazette of 2 1 st February 1880 as forfeited (Folio 78/44273[...]airly treated as he had three
years from the date of McCord’s survey to complete the improvements an[...]s reopened to allow Oldfield to
present evidence of residence and improvements (Folio 81/57131[...]
Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (221)_ , cu N" rumor; my

cum. SALES NIL/W- 257/“
TRAGING

Ofofof 59, 60 and 61 Parish of Cuppacumbalong

i

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (222)[...]mprovements were satisfactory “though the
value of the latter (improvements), similar to Mr G. F ane de Salises case, grossly
exaggerated”.

A note of the front of the folio reads as follows:

“the selector depo[...]compatible with a proper observance and discharge
of the conditions of residence.

I cannot understand how the Commissio[...]ional conditional
purchases and Portion 20 Parish of Naas as a conditional lease.

Analysis of Conditional Purchase Series
The following dummies[...]d:

Table 7.1 Selection series Dummies and Length of time held.

Series I
Seriesz
Seriess
Seriess

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (223)[...]ars that the dummies were to hold crucial parcels of land for the de Salises. The
two aspects being av[...]te, and the Oldfields were used and the question of how much land could be held
by the de Salises. Pr[...]ummies contributed to this.

Naturally the course of dummying did not always run true. The original se[...]hole series was forfeited.

The selection series, of which there are 14 in Tharwa and Cuppacumbalong p[...]ar cry from the theoretical 320 acre or 640
acres of the yeoman farmer. Of this land 6680 acres or 57% was held in the name of
George de Salis, 4280 acres or 37% was held under[...]eoman farmer was supposed to hold.

The locations of the conditional purchase series in the Parishes of Cuppacumbalong

and Tharwa are shown in Figures 7.31 and 7.32. Table 7.2 shows the series in order of
initiation or purchase, which helps show something of the de Salis selection strategy.

Table 7.2 Selec[...]ted
es
No

Secured key flats in the western side of Naas Valley 1872
Secured land at Long Gully 1872

5 Secured land along the Western bank of the 1872

- Murrumbidgee

1873

4 Seemed land along the Western bank of the 1873
_-

m Secured land north bank of the Gudgenby river at Naas 1874
Secured land south bank of Gudgenby river at Naas and 1874[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (224)[...]- land at bottom of Naas Valley _
Secured the middle of Naas Valley 1875

3 Seemed more land on the west bank of the 1880
I M... I
11 Secured land on west bank of Murrumbidgee between 1881
I—I
12 Basically a se[...]-1880
- Wright’s selections in the northern end of the run _
Purchase of Oldfield’s selections at Top Naas then used 18[...]exclude Cotter and Lenane -
l3 Secured the middle of Sawyers Creek (Spring Gully) 1883
_I
I Purchase of Warner’s conditional purchases Naas

Peacocking[...]this thesis it is used to refer to the selection of
portions of land in such a way as to control a greater area. Examples of peacocking
might be a series of selections along a frontage with a gap in between[...]d be used to control access to water.

An example of peacocking is shown in the case of Portions 52, 55 and 56. These were
additional con[...]ed on Portion 6, which was a conditional
purchase of George de Salis. He transferred it to Arthur le P[...]on and George does
not mention McCord on the date of the survey so it seems unlikely that he was guide[...]uty Surveyor General noted “I think if
the form of survey is allowed it will form a very bad precede[...]s as an additional conditional purchase in virtue of Portion
6 which had been transferred back[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (225)[...]“ ’ry Irihurzefafowcé under the i

2/ clause of NM 0. L. A. Act of 186/
- ’ #ij
C.P. A'O. 7? /12_33
ll 23¢[...]. 67‘ 43
{613/4 7_ I‘M/ZS; ffl «if .. . Dale of Survey H: / ”fay 7;!

Figure 7.20 Portion plan of portions 52, 55, & 56 showing possible peacocking

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (226)A second example of “peacocking” occurred with the selection of the series based on
Portion 13 Parish of Cuppacumbalong. The land was selected by Leopold[...]selection allowed de Salis to dominate
the banks of both rivers although the steep descent to the str[...]arliament”. . .”.'65 L. S. McCord got the job of resurveying the land (see Figure
7.26), (Folio 75[...]attempts at peacocking (another being the survey
of portions at Orroral ) and here the strengths and weaknesses of the land
administration system are shown. The adm[...]cked up the obvious
peacocking through the review of portion plans and their failure to comply with
regulations. In the case of Portions 52, 55 and 56, the end result was the sa[...]te Portion 62
and put it up for sale. In the case of Portion 13 et al the de Salises were not so lucky,
losing control of a small flat (on which they had improvements). W[...]quick to look at attempted peacocking in the case of frontage to
rivers and streams they seemed to ign[...]ck flats which were
limited in the hilly terrain of Cuppacumbalong.

Improvement Purchases

Under the[...]squatter had the right to purchase land in virtue of the
improvements made on them, the size of the land being related to the value of the
improvements (i. e. 1 acre per £1 of improvements). Improvement purchases were
extensi[...]s totalling 339 acres, a comparatively small
part of the overall estate. The obvious disadvantage of the improvement purchases
was the need to actuall[...]expenditure could be spread over a greater
period of time.

'65 Leopold de Salis supported Thom[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (227)[...]7: - ay- 11‘:

...

Figure 7.21 Original survey of portions 13-14, 17-19 by LS Thompson

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (228)[...]drier way ”are made

Figure 7.22 Revised design of the portions

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (229)[...]5.5/70 5'
7 35951 offpartwrwm./4,9/7¢Z/

faJZS/z of @W/gg
5% 0f 95/169.

W f» ma. a? ”7‘![...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (230)Reserve Creation

Squatter influence on the process of reserve creation was identified as an important[...]serves. Therefore the important question in terms of the de Salis strategy of
defending the run is the extent to which reserves[...]k the land by the
de Salises. There are two lines of evidence that can be used:

1. The extent and nature of de Salis involvement in creating the reserves,

2. The location of reserves in the landscape.

The first question c[...]erence to a file and then following it’s chain of
custody (marked by file numbers related to Corre[...]earch the Government Gazettes. In short, evidence of de Salis involvement in
creating reserves is limited by the inherent difficulty of the historical records.

Table 7.3 Reserves on th[...]on as Portion 60 by
J. M. Wright 31/3/1884
Parish of
_

TSR-1063 24/9/1884

WR 6 29/7/1885 Revoked 25/[...]'66 As might be expected the creation of a reserve resulted in the creation of a correspondence file in the
Lands Department.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (231)[...]ns
to surveyors and their reports. From the dates of gazettal it is obvious that in the early
to mid-1[...]trict Surveyor Arthur Betts initiated the process of Reserve
formulation as a result of selection in the area. There is no evidence in the files or in
the de Salis diaries of the de Salises initiating reserve formation on Cuppacumbalong
run. The location of reserves on Cuppacumbalong run is shown in Figure[...]her geographic features. WK 6 is the only reserve of
potential strategic interest as it runs across th[...]. However the reserve traverses the steepest part of the terrain rather than
taking in flats to the n[...]ve Files have not been found. However an
analysis of the landscape suggests that reserving this land would have been of little
benefit for the de Salises as they alread[...]t, resting on the Clear Range. WR 67 takes in 4km of undulating hills
running east with a steep decent of 130m in 1km to the Murrumbidgee. There is a
small flat formed by a complex meeting of ridge lines but as this would have lacked
water t[...]n the public interest.

In contrast, the creation of the reserves on the Coolemon run in 1882 is the clearest
example of the de Salis involvement in reserve creation. Whe[...]and Archibald McDonald had each taken a selection of 640 acres on
Coolemon, one of their reactions was to attempt to control selecti[...]e areas be reserved

from selection “on account of the many natural curiosities” (de Salis[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (232)[...]am led to believe that in the limestone formation of
the Coolemon plains there exist valuable and exte[...]fine
waterfall.

As the proposed Cooma extension of the great southern railway will for
tourists and[...]the locality within a comparatively easy
distance of the metropolis I have thought it advisable to seek your

permission to inspect the locality with the view of proposing suitable
reserves.

Owing to the continued drought in the County of Murray a rush for land
on the Coolemon Plains and in the locality of the caves started today, four,
six hundred and fo[...]ns are made.

I have obtained an extract from one of the local papers giving a

description of the caves and waterfall. This extract I beg to re[...]rnment
Gazette 1/2/1882 ff 536). A second reserve of 1200 acres (R 659) was proclaimed due
to the sudden illness of Surveyor Smith which meant he could not inspect t[...]dence
Files No 82/4259 SRNSW Ref 2/1292). In none of the correspondence is Leopold de
Salis mentioned[...]tter filed.

Mr Smith reported on his inspection of the Coolemon Caves which he undertook with
George[...]Sir,
In a compliance with your wired instructions of the 3 lst ultimo, and a

subsequent Reserve Branc[...]pplication by L. F. de Salis for the preservation of the Murray

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (233)[...]er with an extended reserve half a mile each side of the
Goodradigbee to the junction of the Mount Murray branch thence up that
branch for a distance of one mile and a half.

On visiting the locality, I[...]d and attractive landscape views and other points of
curiosity of valuable public interest.

None of these are reasons can fairly be applied to reserv[...]ay branch. I therefore cannot submit that so much of that
suggestion be entertained.

With reference t[...]ws are undoubtedly grand and very attractive.
One of the two known caves although not so extensive as[...]an course may also be fairly be
considered points of curiosity valuable to the public.

I am of the opinion that in future time the magnificent summer climate
and the attractive landscape of the whole district will entice numerous
visitors. A reserve embracing the above mentioned the points of interest, I
therefore think is advisable. Mr de Salis suggests a width of half a mile on

each side of the river - a Reserve for half and a mile up the[...]e.

I beg to enclose a tracing showing the scheme of reserves, which I now
submit for your approval”[...]W Ref 2/1 292).

This resulted in the replacement of R 658 with R 664 on the 13‘h March 1882 (N SW
G[...]Salis had as a MLC can be seen by the reservation of
part of the Caves. Nothing in the file suggests the de Salises as the beneficiaries of the
reservation but their involvement is clear, though cloaked in the spirit of public good
of reserving “natural curiosities”. The de Salis[...]m selecting on Coolemon. In effect it was a means of controlling the

"’7 George proposed to[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (234)land in the guise of a public good, initiated in the spirit of selflessness by the
Honourable Leopold de Salis.[...]ampbell selections and leases into a smaller area of flat, which was
effectively stoppered by de Salis’ lapsed selections of Portions 1 and 2. So the
creation of the reserves at Coolemon acted as part of the de Salis selection strategy in
response to Ca[...]cape evidence it seems unlikely that the
creation of reserves was part of the de Salis strategy to protect their run. The
exceptions being of course the Tharwa Village Reserve which was initi[...]gional networks to explain
the underlying pattern of reserves. The purpose of the reserves was to create space for
“community[...]e no hotels at convenient locations so the system of
reserves allowed for space for stock and their dr[...]on selections and squatting runs. The
main series of these were created as TSR —15, which created fo[...]—13 which was defined as 20 chains
either side of the road from Kiandra to Yass via Tharwa and gaze[...]mon.

There also seems to have been a great phase of reserve establishment in the 18805.
Presumably th[...]ves be created while the land was available. Some
of these reserves were later abolished or reduced in[...]being then offered
as selections or, in the case of WR 67, the land was opened for selection as
Homes[...]he reserve locations were limited by the quantity of already
selected land, which reduced the potentia[...]serves on Cuppacumbalong run were created as part of a natural process of
responsible land management rather than at the instigation of the squatters, as seems
to have been the case in[...]the de Salis strategy for creating the estate out of their runs involved
firstly exercising their pre[...]They were
forced to purchase lots in the village of Tharwa when their attitude to enclosing of
roads created a dispute between them and t[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (235)246

creation of a village reserve enclosing the head station of Cuppacumbalong. Using
these rights the de Salises were able to secure land in each of their four out-stations on
Cuppacumbalong. The de Salises do not seem to have used the strategy of creating
reserves to safeguard their land except in the case of Coolemon.

The bulk of the land that made up the de Salis estate was obtained by conditional
purchase. By the use of dummies and manipulation of the Land laws, the de Salises
were able to purcha[...]onditional purchase the land was
bought on a form of time payment, which helped the de Salises, as the[...]TORS

“Bona fide” Selectors

Given the number of dummies it seems surprising that there were a few[...]selectors, the de Salises in fact outsourced many of the functions that
were occurring on squatting ru[...]atter gave them access to a cash income and lines of
credit. '68 As well, a relationship with the de S[...]n the selector
access to influence and knowledge of the system should they need it. There was a
mutua[...]field senior and his family are the main example of the independent
selector. Old Joe Oldfield was a[...], almost indomitable although limited by his
lack of education and capital. Surprisingly he returned t[...]eight
children with his second wife Mary Keeghan. Of these, Thomas and Henry Oldfield
worked for the[...]t.

The first act in the drama was the selection of a 40-acre conditional purchase by Joe
Oldfield j[...]This Portion (24) was next to the southern border
of Portion 7, a de Salis conditional purchase which had lapsed through lack of survey
within one year. Survey was complet[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (236)[...]portions along the river.
The de Salis selection of Portion 25 blocked expansion to the south, Portio[...]ich offered rich
well-watered soil. Thus the area of Portion 25 was a strategic area to acquire for bo[...]there was a dispute (see Figure 7.25).

The facts of the matter seem to be that on the 24“1 October 1867, Lands Office Day,
Joseph Oldfield (senior) arrived at the Lands Office intending to select what became
Portion 25.[...]essions
day and a jury in fact occupied the Lands Ofof Thomas Oldfield, his son.

When the facts of the case became known, Oldfield’s cause was taken up by
champions of free selection in Queanbeyan, the Free Selectors Protection League and
the Queanbeyan Age in a series of public meetings and letters. Most of the anger was
directed at Willans (who later sued[...]cised by Dr. Morton as being “a man who instead of doing his duty as a
representative of the people is the very first to break the law”[...]1 l/ 1867) as
well as criticising de Salis’ use of his children as dummies.l7 Morton cemented,
after[...]general character and intelligence “the conduct ofofficial inquiry into Willan’s action, but eventually with the
agreement of all parties, the inquiry was abandoned on 29th Ma[...]. In proceeding against them, apart from his lack of means,
the difficulties of his official position and their influence would[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (237)[...]erning his conditional purchase, Portion 7 Parish of Tharwa (now the site
of Lambrigg):

“I have the honour to inform you that one Joseph Oldfield is in illegal
occupation of those crown lands viz 240 acres which I conditionally
purchased 30th October on the west bank of the Murrumbidgee river in
the Queanbeyan district[...]eed against him in accordance with the provisions of the Lands Acts
of 1861.

I have given no kind of consent to Oldfields continuing... on such land;
and on complaining to our Land Agent ofof the trespass having been
committed subsequent to the date of the conditional purchase I conclude that the Govt[...]upon to interfere” (14/1/68). This was the gist of the reply sent to de
Salis by the Lands Departmen[...]cting Portion 30, a 40-acre portion, to the south of Oldfields selection and
Portions 29 and 31 which[...]eft the Oldfields with a
very disjointed pattern of selections squeezed in between Portion 7 and de S[...]ock Portion l and blocked to the west by a series of selections (see Figure
7.33). Effectively, by strategic selections and with the assistance of information about
Oldfield’s planned selection[...]able to block the Oldfields from
taking control of an important part of the northern end of Cuppacumbalong.

Joe Oldfield senior made five selections of 40 acres each on 20th November (Portions
38 to 41). These were to the west of the de Salis selections on undulating grassed
country which, while of reasonable quality, was not as good as the land a[...]leather there, as he still works at his old
trade of shoemaker” (Folio 78/690 Lands Department - Con[...]the Oldfields was that they
had come to a series of agreements with them. The de Salis diaries record[...]Salis
mentions going halves for boundary fencing of Oldfield’s selection and “told him I
would not be particular about a few of his cattle running outside the fence, this

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (238)[...]greed to a truce. The Oldfields
were allowed use of the whole block of land between Portions 7 and 1 provided they
gave[...]10/1/1881). Later Joe selected Portion 63 Parish

of Cuppacumbalong and developed a small holding call[...]entially hostile selector was Michael Cotter, son of Gamett Cotter whose
family held Demandering Run, the southern neighbour of Cuppacumbalong. The
Cotters had made extensive se[...]area between the Clear Range and the
western bank of the Murrumbidgee from the 18605. Cotter's selection, along with that
of Lenane's opposite, was seen as a hostile act by Leopold de Salis. There was talk of
some retaliatory selections on Cotter’s run but[...]0 George de Salis
selected the remaining 70 acres of land between Portion 23 and the Tharwa Village
Reserve in the name of the late John White and in virtue of Portion 23. Needless to
say this caused some fuss[...]e portion was forfeited despite having £42 worth of
improvements on it. Although George de Salis wrot[...]85/18822 SRNSW Ref 10/17321).

George White, son of John and Mary White, purchased the selections of James
Robertson (which had been made in December[...]up small
holdings with the permission and support of the de Salises. Tong was a trusted
employe[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (239)[...]mas Warner senior, another former convict servant of Wright’s, had built up a
small holding of selections on the flat in Naas Valley from 1864.[...]hased the run. He was not disturbed and sold much of his crop to
the de Salises. On his death in 1886[...]ises for £130.

More surprising is the selection of several portions of good quality flats at Naas by
Thomas Gregory from 1881. From the de Salis diaries there is no evidence of Gregory
being a dummy, although he was an employe[...]e other approved selectors, obtained a good
piece of land.

There were two types of “bona fide” selectors, hostile and friendly.[...]selections by the
Oldfield family.

In the case of the “friendly” selectors, they were able to e[...]osits for
the selections. Here we see the example of the English gentlemen, mentioned in the
quotation[...]interested. Nonetheless it was an

important part of the de Salis strategy, as a noble estate always r[...]e shared domestic ideal and the essential
problem of selection. Both the de Salises and the selectors had the aim of achieving
the domestic ideal - the home, the hearth and family. The difference was in the scope
of the establishment, the selectors looking for the[...]o help the respectable servants achieve the ideal of a small farm and residence so
long as it was in t[...]ily. Thus the traditional Australian bush notions of
egalitarianism and the “fair go” in th[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (240)[...]eptember 1880. This gave the Wrights a large part of the northern end of
Cuppacumbalong. Wright’s action prompted George[...]been “blowing about what he will do in the way of impounding our
sheep”. Later that month, on the[...]ssing fencing with Wright negotiated the purchase of the selections (some 760
acres) for £500. The la[...]ending to select on
Coolemon, clearly in the hope of securing some vital land that either Campbell or[...]George was able to
dissuade them by flashing an offical letter about the reserves (de Salis diaries[...]rn to England.
'72 These were JJ Wright “father of Queanbeyan", and his son JJM Wright. They were not related to
James Wright former owner of Cuppacumbalong and Lanyon.
Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (241)[...]e original conditional purchases. Given that much of the de Salis property was held
as conditional purchases or improvement purchases, the process of taking up
selections or making improvement purcha[...]required to undertake improvements. Improvements of course involve changes to the
landscape so the pattern of selection and the de Salises responses resulted in the
modification of the landscape to “improve” it. Thus the actual squatting landscape is a
result of the patterns of land ownership and the associated improvements.

The Conditional Purchase files record the process of improvement. Firstly the initial
application was[...]posed to be paid compensation). Then the surveyor of the land was
supposed to record improvements and[...]three years. After each declaration the
Inspector of Conditional Purchases was to make an independent assessment of
Improvements. Inevitably there were cases of discrepancy in value. The de Salises
were noted on a number of occasions to have made fairly large claims for the value of
improvements which were challenged by the Inspectors, in particular Charles
Cropper, a redoubtable foe of the de Salises. '73 These disputes ended in the Land
Courts or in Commissions of Inquiry. Once all the improvements and residence had
been verified then a final certificate of conformity was issued, leaving the selector
with[...]e. It is possible for the impact on the landscape of the process of selection to
be assessed using this information. A database of improvements has been established.
The assessments of improvements in the applicant’s declarations ha[...]ed on the surveyor’s
assessment and the records of the Inspectors. The analysis has also ignored dum[...]e by dummies have been included in the
assessment of the de Salis estate. Theoretically it should be p[...]til
the 18705 and detailed and consistent records of inspection only exist from the 18805.

'73 George de Salis wrote of Cropper, “I do not know why he has a dow[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (242)[...]four categories, similar to those used by Butlin of looking at
capital expenditure on pastoral stations in the Western Division of NSW.

Table 7.4 Summary of de Salis Improvements on Cuppacumbalong Run

Buil[...]ated with extreme caution given the inconsistency of the

records on which it is based. But it shows g[...]These are that:

0 The value of land clearing activities is almost half of the expenditure.
0 The value of water conservation improvements is minimal.

The critical point being that land clearing, of all the improvements, has the most direct
impact[...]and trees are common, particularly
on the margins of the flats, improvements emphasised clearing.

The nature of the types of improvement and their impact on the landscape are[...]at either Cuppacumbalong or Naas
homesteads, both of which were on freehold land, so there was no scop[...]as required to make a serviceable hut was a frame of stout timbers
and some galvanised iron to make th[...]nd chimney. George de Salis
records having frames of huts 20’ by 12’ made for £50 (de Sali[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (243)[...]he difficulty in locating archaeological remains of hut sites.
Even when their location is marked on[...]ckyards. These were more
important to the working of the run than the portable houses (although I susp[...]aring was an important improvement as the essence of selection was to create
small agricultural holdin[...]ld trees. The important point is that
the process of clearing was occurring as a result of the Land Acts rather than being
related to the en[...]that some clearing might have occurred regardless of
the Lands Acts. In the debate on the Ring-barking[...]75 Leopold de Salis loudly proclaimed the virtues of
ring—barking as an improvement to the land (rat[...]inspected his run as commenting
that, “instead of being punished for the ring-barking on it I ought[...]racting fiom its value by preventing

the growth of grass” ( emphasis mine, de Salis, NSW Parliamen[...]7).

Clearing seems to have occurred in a variety of stages. First was ring-barking which
involved cutting a deep groove around the sap wood of a tree with the aim of cutting
the supply of sap to the branches from the roots and causing the tree to die. Associated
with this was the picking up of dead wood and removing it, usually by burning. Th[...]poem Skeleton Flat:

“And round all the trunks of the naked white trees
The marks of the death-ring are seen.”

Later he refers to the “skeleton wraith of a wood” (Lawson Skeleton Flat, 1890).

m This a[...]s were often counted twice or more in the valuing of improvements thus the
figure in Table 7.4 is likely to over-estimate the value ofof the
chamber.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (244)[...]ture trees where two trunks
grow out from a point of common origin. Thus it was important to “sucker[...]king was effective in
removing trees. The removal of trees often promoted rapid growth and colonisation of
land by scrub species and scrub removal also beca[...]already been inspected and a final certificate of conformity issued then there
was no reason to exp[...]so burnt to destroy new growth. Finally the roots of the tree were
“grubbed,” this involved cutting the roots of a tree at depth and removing the stump.
Usually t[...]basically grassy plains. However clearing was one
of the few options for the squatter in making genuin[...]the de Salises there might well have been a sense of
mission about ring-barking given Leopold de Salis[...]’ diaries indicate that he employed small teams of two
to three people, usually local residents on a[...]nd improve
portions. In addition there is mention of deliberately setting fire to some land. The dc
Salises seemed to exaggerate the value of ring-barking particularly in the early years
of selection. Later, the Inspectors of conditional purchases seem to give ring-barking a[...]ect the de
Salises were over—claiming the value of improvements. When the regulations changed
and th[...], it is notable that they only
specified fencing of selections rather than insisting on clearing. This probably reflects

the local situation in the County of Cowley where agriculture was not going to be
viable in the mountainous terrain.

The impact of clearing on the landscape was probably not felt f[...]or each
catchment depending on the configuration of the catchment. The amount of rainfall
was also an important factor. As selecti[...]t, again reinforcing the tendency for the impacts
of clearing to occur differentially across the lands[...]an uniformly across a
squatting run.

The burning of the landscape would have reinforced the effect of clearing by the
squatters. George de Salis record[...]berately set
on Cuppacumbalong. With the increase of fencing on the land however the setting of

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (245)257

fires would have declined due to the possibility of expensive fences being burnt out.
On Coolemon, th[...]was not seen as an improvement.

Fences

Fencing of squatting runs as discussed in Chapter 3 began in[...]lia. The principle advantage lay in
the reduction of labour costs and increasing stocking rates. Various forms of fences
were constructed, ranging from the dry stone walls of the Western District, chuck and
log fences, post and rail fences and increasingly from the 18503 wire fences of
varying types (see Pickard 1992, 1997). Generally fencing is not considered to be a
major agent of environmental change however Pickard (1994), has[...]n where timber sources were scarce and the impact of cutting the trees would have

been more pronounce[...]the Canberra region.

From the squatter’s point of View, fencing, while important in managing stock,[...]if running around every small portion. Thus many of the de Salis fences
on portions were not fencing the portion boundaries but part of a larger scheme of
fencing on the run creating paddocks suitable for stock. Thus the rectangular pattern

of selection on the parish plans would not be matched by a similar pattern of fences
on the ground.

Following the passing of the Crown Lands Act (1884) every conditional purchaser
was required to fence the boundaries of the conditional purchase with a substantial
fence of the “prescribed classes” and maintain the fence in good repair during the
period of residence required by each conditional purchaser[...]requirement for fencing would have
had the effect of increasing demand on timber resources and encoura[...]Under the Crown Lands Regulations 1884 six types of fences were specified but this
seems to have bee[...]arious amendments to the regulations,
the classes of acceptable fencing was increased. In the late 18803 the Local Lands
Board began to specify the type of fencing and the area it was to enclose. This was[...]e was also a requirement for a selector to obtain official permission to enclose a
watercourse[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (246)There is no record of the de Salises ever constructing a darn, well or[...]od and reliable rainfall in the region.

Draining of swamps

Improvements on the Boroombah run by the McKeahnie family (neighbours of the de
Salises) inevitably included the construction of drains to drain the swampy flats and
this seems to be a common activity elsewhere in the district. It is, of course, of short-
term benefit in improving animal health (as it reduces the risk of footrot) but as the
swampy flats acted as de-facto dams, draining swamps has a long term effect of
reducing water available for the stock.

In considering the overall pattern of husbanding the run, the de Salises having gone
down the route of establishing the estate by conditional purchase w[...]ch portion. This requirement existed irrespective
of whether a portion actually needed to be “improv[...]ments to be more closely related to the realities of grazing.
However “improvement’ was still being derived by legislation rather than by the
realities of grazing and the environment. This explains why so[...]t a requirement for using
the land.

The sequence of improvement (i.e. where and when it occurred) is[...]pold’s interest
in ring-barking, no doubt a lot of the land would have been ring-barked in any case.

CONCLUSION

The de Salises used a variety of strategies to fashion the de Salis freehold estate out of
the leasehold run. Detailed study of the individual portions through the Lands
Department files combined with the diaries of George de Salis, has allowed a unique
insight into the process of husbanding a squatter’s estate. This process was largely
controlled by the patriarch of the family Leopold de Salis, assisted by his son George
who was the manager of Cuppacumbalong and Coolemon. However Leopold did not
have a free hand in the creation of the estate as he had to work through a system of
legislation, regulation and bureaucracy which, while underpinned by commonly held
notions of domesticity, had the aim of promoting the “yeoman” farmer rather than the
squatter.

The importance of the evidence in the de Salis diaries, with their[...]and the Lands Department records, with their view of the process,
is that for the first time t[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (247)259

the personalities of the individuals involved, and their social roles can be seen. Thus,
unlike the broad view of squatter versus selectors which sees them as bein[...]e first means used to create the estate was that of exercising their pre-emptive right
under the Orde[...]ng homestead through purchase without competition of village lots at
Tharwa.

However Leopold de Salis secured most of the land through the process of conditional
purchase under the various Land Acts.[...]lections the
de Salises were able to gain control of the most valuable land, the flats within

Cuppacumbalong run (and Naas after 1869) and turn much of their leased run into
freehold estate.

By the process of counter selection and some sharp work in the Lands Office they
were able to “quarantine’ hostile s[...]g
them to select on non-essential land. A pattern of land ownership of a large estate with
small farms on the margins was created. The actual shape of the land was created
according to the surveyor’s regulations of the time which aimed to prevent squatters
from sq[...]tors. Thus some selection patterns were suspected of
“peacocking” the land and were rejected.

As all parties mainly used the selection provisions of the various Crown Land Acts
the creation of an estate was linked with the need to make improv[...]ainly clearing, followed by fencing,
construction of buildings and some dam construction. On Coolemon there was
minimal clearing recorded and the majority of improvements were fencing and
buildings. These di[...]he selectors were forced to
improve, irrespective of any need to for grazing purposes, although given the strong
commitment of Leopold de Salis to ring-barking, it is likely th[...]ng
would have been ring-barked as a demonstration of his ability to husband the run
according to the latest principals of “scientific” farming.I76

'76 In this context, it should be mentioned that William Farrer, one of Australia’s early “agricultural
scient[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (248)260

The impact of the de Salis husbanding and the elements discusse[...]e following chapter which focuses
on the creation of the de Salis cultural landscape on a catch[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (249)[...]Salis landscape was created by using the strategy of working through the Land
Acts to control the fir[...]modation with
selectors when appropriate. The use of the Lands Acts required that each portion be
“i[...]ring-barking. In this chapter, the transformation of the
landscape due to these processes is outlined[...]and photographs in order to try to give a Vision of how the landscape was put
together.

The data on the pattern of land acquisition is derived from the Conditional[...]l as Boroombah and Orroral). The relevant aspects of the files were copied and
filed according to po[...]tour map derived from AUSLIG’s 1:250,000 series of digital
mapping data. These produced the maps used for each catchment. ‘78

Analysis of each catchment was made by a combination of detailed examination of
the relevant 1225,000 topographic maps and by field inspections of all catchments,179
(except Coolemon which I was unable to get to due to snow). Descriptions of the
landforms were made using Australian Soil and[...]ok
(McDonald et al. 1990) which is a valuable way of describing (and to some extent
explaining) the physical environment. The process of combining this information into
landscape descrip[...]to Paddy’s River. This is mainly the catchment of
Barnes Creek, which rises on the eastern side of a ridge running north south from
Castle Hill to B[...]0m wide and
about 1.2km long. On the eastern side of the flat rises a ridge, 40m above the flat. The[...]ridge. Lambrigg Homestead is on the eastern side of the

”7 Here 1 gladly acknowledge the help of my sister Meg Stuart in establishing the database.
'78 The overlay of the different layers of data was not precise, no doubt due to the well-known
difficulties of using the cadastral plans, which were not precisely tied into any form of geoid.
'79 I was assisted by Miss S. McKay[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (250)[...]rivate graveyard (probably containing the remains of William Farrer) is
located on its crest.

The initial selections of Portions 7, l9, & 20 in 1863 were protecting fron[...]urrumbidgee. The garden and hut shown on the plan of 1864 were probably some
form of out—station. Portion 20 took in an area known a[...]and the
de Salises attempts to control the extent of their selections. Thus Portions 24, 25, 26,

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (251)Figure 8:2 Photo of Catchment 1 from the South-West showing flats an[...], was
improved by the de Salis family as the bulk of the improvements were done by April
1885, after t[...]conditional purchase.

By November 1877, the date of Cropper’s inspections, the majority of the land in the
catchment seems to have been ring[...]used it for his experimental wheat crops.180 Much of this land lies in the flat and

valley sides but no single portion takes in the flat, suggesting the aim of the selections

was to block in the Oldfields.[...]hich resulted in the
famous “Federation" strain of wheat. The great irony is that the wheat w[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (252)Figure 8.3 Catchment 2 Murrumbidgee North of Tharwa

The area to the west of Tharwa consists of a ridge running north west from the
Tharwa Trig p[...]eek) through to Castle Hill. The area to
the east of this area and south of catchment l is in this catchment. Although the sl[...]angular with the base being the northern
boundary of Catchment l and is 1.2km wide. The apex is the Th[...]n to the
Murrumbidgee. The catchment has a number of small watercourses running west from
the ridge li[...]was first taken up by the pre-emptive purchases of Leopold de Salis and
described as good agricultural land. Portions 1 & 2 were linked by selections of
Portion 17 & 18, which lapsed and were purchased at auction in 1869. These

selections took up much of the flat. No record of improvements exist for any of these
portions.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (253)[...]re 8.4 Catchment 2 looking South from the flanks of Castle Hill ridge

The northern border of this catchment was part of the land disputed by the Oldfield‘s
and the de[...]the selection and improvement pattern is a result of this action.
There were also the small selections of both Harris and Robertson which eventually
were t[...]s dummies for the de Salises. This was in an
area of moderately sloping land which could not be consid[...]made selections further inland in the hills west of Tharwa during
1880-1881. Selectors John Sheedy and Daniel White made later selections and
conditional leases of land around the margins of Castle Hill in the early 18905.

Improvements generally consisted of ring-barking and clearing, with more intense
cult[...]ilt on the selection blocks. Initial improvements of clearing,
fencing, and a house were recorded on Portion 23 as part of Harris’s selection in the
period 1867-69. Impro[...]880.
Improvements on the de Salis selections west of Tharwa were made between 1885

and 1888. Finally, a fairly substantial set of improvements were made by Sheedy on
Portio[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (254)[...]evident gully erosion. On the north western side of the creek there is a
moderately inclined slope rising some 50m in 300m to the crest of the Clear Hills

ridge. Sawyers Gully is mostly cleared and grassed with a few areas of weed
infestation.

Two of de Salises pre-emptive selections, Portions 3 and[...]wed by conditional purchases (by
George de Salis) of Portions 13 & 14, which linked the two previous p[...]hed Fishlock as a dummy in the north-westem comer of the
catchment by a series of conditional purchases (Series 14) in 1873 and 187[...]d around Castle Hill. The McKeahnies
took up some of the hills along the boundary between Boroombah and
Cuppacumbalong (i. e. the western edge of the catchment) mainly as conditional
lease[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (255)[...]pring) gully

The improvements by 1863 were areas of fencing and cultivation on Portion 15 and a
but o[...]ts when surveyed in 1864 but by 1866
improvements of cottage, farm buildings, milking, stock & pig yards, fencing,
clearing and draining of lands to the value of £1 70 were claimed for both portions.
How[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (256)[...]gully looking North West

Selection on the sides of the flat resulted in intensive clearing. Not onl[...]ring was undertaken in 1884. No doubt, one effect of

, this was increased erosion. There is severe gully erosion along Sawyers Creek and in
‘ eroded sections of the creek evidence of recent deposition of sediment.

The final phases of improvment occurred in the 1890s when small selections were
established around Castle Hill, on the flanks of Mount Tennent and on the border of
Boroombah and Cuppacumbalong. By this time, emphasis in the regulations was
placed on fencing of boundaries rather than clearing, and so the impro[...]taken up must be seen as second class on account of its steep
slopes, poor quality of vegetation and lack of water.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (257)[...]GUDGENBY RIVER -WEST BANK

The southern boundary of Sawyers Gully is a poorly defined ridge running[...]and meeting high ground which forms an extension of the Clear
Range. Here the Gudgenby River flows t[...]a complex but gently inclined slope to the crest of the
eastern ridge, which is followed by a more ge[...]granite boulders. The boulders and scrubby nature of
the country meant it was not good quality and it was not intensely settled until the turn
of the century. This was also the site of TSR 1063 and Water Reserve —6. The
catchment is[...]he Gudgenby River and on the west
by the boundary of Cuppacumbalong Run, which runs along a ridge from Mount
Tennent. The shape of the flats in the catchment is rather like a J.

The flats start about 2km south of the northern border and gradually widens to the
s[...]bout 200m wide but in the south near the junction of the Naas River, it is some

800m wide. As the Gud[...]w to about
100m.

This catchment was the location of an out-station since Wright held Lanyon (one of
Wright’s shepherds was charged with letting the[...]a hut and gardens and
presumably was the location of the out-station.

No selections occurred in this area until December 1874 when the series of
conditional purchases (Series 6) was established in the south of the catchment on a
bend of the Gudgenby River. Henry Oldfield held these as[...]1 followed
by Portion 159 as a conditional lease (of some 647 acres). Finally Portion 40 was
selected[...]n May 1883. In effect, this put the
southern part of the catchment into de Salis hands. By 1885[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (258)[...]by River West Bank

as s

In the northern part of the catchment Portion 99 was selected in Septembe[...]3 and Portion 75
in August 1883. This is Series 7 of conditional purchases, which White was holding
for George de Salis. The establishment of this series required a hut (2 rooms) for
White to[...]lease in July 1890. This was located to the west of the Series 7 selections
up on the flanks of Mount Tennent. When surveyed in 1891 the boundari[...]Andrew McMahon selected the land on the flanks of Mount Tennent in 1892.
McMahon was building up a holding of selections on Mount Tennent and he took up
some of the original conditional leased land (Portion 117) as selections. The
improvements consisted of fencing.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (259)[...]ugust 1872).

This Catchment was selected as part of conditional purchase Series 10, which as
discussed above was originally set out to follow the course of the gully. This was
deemed unacceptable an[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (260)Portion 121 , which was a portion of some 200 acres to the west of the catchment
between the ridge and the Gudgenby[...]l purchase. On survey in July 1884 a small amount of fencing
was recorded. On inspection in April 1886[...]122 and 119 as conditional leases. A minor amount of ring-barking was recorded
on survey of Portion 109.

The upper reaches of the catchment were contained within parts of Portions 39, 74, 75
and 110 but the files have not been locatedm Portion 77 was a conditional lease of

George de Salis and took in the former Water Reserve WR 6. There is no record of
improvements.

CATCHMENT 6: REEDY CREEK

Reedy Cr[...]scends through a flat, then
through a short drop of about 100m in 1km, then through a much larger fla[...]gee.

The first land taken up was Portion 1, one of de Salises pre-emptive purchases. This
was to sec[...]n by Leopold de Salis. This in effect deprives us of any
information on the improvements. As noted in[...]Reserve 66A and 67
were proclaimed on either side of Portion 1 on 6th June 1868. These prevented
selection on the sides of the flat.

To the north, Portion 68 was a conditional purchase of 640 acres (the minimum
allowed) by Charles Dyball[...]0. He also held Portion 76 as a conditional lease of
634 acres. Dyball was a carter who worked for the[...]rom old
iron fencing and a salt shed, total value of around £7. His second inspection in May[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (261)[...]acres ring-barked, 20 acres
packed and 2.5 miles ofof £375. The extra
improvements were in extending t[...]s selection. What he did not do was to
clear much of his 640 acres. Apart from ring-barking and some p[...]ortion 95 as a special lease. On
the western side of Reedy Creek, running over the Clear Range, the land was held as
part of the Cuppacumbalong run and not selected until the[...]was not selected until 1909.

On the eastern side of the catchment, WR 67 was subdivided as Homestead[...]nto the Cuppacumbalong Land Exchange). Again
much of the land was held as part of the Cuppacumbalong run and selection did not
occu[...]balong.

In the Reedy Creek catchment, the impact of improvement was not as great as
elsewhere because of the pattern of selection. Once the core area of the flats were
secure, which had occurred by 186[...]ral run, apart from the “friendly” selections of Dyball.
Presumably, this reflects the poor quality of the remaining land although the flat
selected as Portion 108 would have been of a higher quality. Strategically it would
h[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (262)[...]ENTS WEST or THE MURRUMBIDGEE

There are a series of small catchments running up to 1km west of the Murrumbidgee
and bounded by a ridge forming t[...]ts and Reedy
Creek catchments. The characteristic of these catchments is a moderately inclined
simple slope rising from the Murrumbidgee of about 100m in 600m followed by a
gently inclined complex slope, almost a flat. To the west of this typically is a
moderately inclined simple slope to the western boundary of the catchment. The
catchments have been aggregate[...]asier.

The first selection in the catchment was of Portion 23, a conditional purchase of
Henry de Salis in May 1873. This was the first c[...]close a creek, while the two additional purchases of Portions 37 and 38 in
September 1875 took in gently inclined land to the west of Portion 23. Portion 69 was
selected in March 1881[...]lapsed. The series was completed by the
selection of Portions 69, 78, and 79 as an additional conditional purchase of 240 acres
along with a conditional lease ([...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (263)[...]ad been moved from the land once Henry’s period of
residence was over, so apart from the fence the o[...]in October 1890.

Edward Tandy selected a series of four 40-acre conditional purchases in 1875. These
took in an area of flattish land on the western boundary of the catchment. These all
lapsed between 18[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (264)[...]ilar to the preceding one having a steep gradient of about 100m
in 500m on the frontage to the Murrumb[...]ar Range. This is the last catchment in this area of
Cuppacumbalong Run that was selected by the de Sa[...]ion in the catchment began with the establishment of Portion 26 as a conditional
purchase of Martin Nugent, a dummy for the de Salises, in May[...]g-barked
and 20 acres packed along with 40 chains of wire fencing. George de Salis then
selected Portion 120 in July 1883. This selection linked this series of selections with
those of Henry de Salis in Catchment 7, at this stage Port[...]to the Murrumbidgee (80 chains) and thus the area of
Portion 120 was reduced to 51 acres. The selection of Portion 79 in November 1886
Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (265)[...]nted this. There were no improvements at the time of
survey in February 1884.

The final de Salis sel[...]1884 when a 309 acre block was
taken to the west of Portions 24 to 26. Again, this was a problematic[...]surveyed for auction
but not approved at the time of selection. As well, it enclosed the road from Tharwa to
Michelago. The boundary of Portion 22 was adjusted to the west to avoid thes[...]ons in this area in 1898 and 1900.
atter the sale of Cuppacumbalong. Possibly, George de Salis[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (266)282

CATCHMENT 9: EAST SIDE OF THE GUDGENBY RIVER AND NAAS RIVER.

This catchmen[...]between the Gudgenby River and east to the crest
of the Clear Range. This is moderately inclined land rising about 200m in about 1km
to the crest of the Clear Range. The creeks accordingly run fairly straight and there
are few areas of flat ground. These tend to lie on the crest of the ridge or between the
river and the commencement of the upward slope. But there is not a consistent area of
flat along the river. As a way of understanding settlement and improvement,[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (267)[...]“ \\\\\\H\\\\\\ I

Figure 8.15 Catchment 9 East of Gudgenby River and Naas River

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (268)Leopold de Salis selected Portion 121 in 1882 as part of his previous selections in
Long Gully catchment.[...]ons were in a
gently inclined area near the crest of the ridge but they must not have been important
a[...]ray resided on Portion 113 by the river (no
trace of his house remains). Lester in surveying the porti[...]that no road could be made along the eastern bank of the Gudgenby “owing to the
roughness of country and the precipitous nature of the bank”. Lester noted
improvements of a garden and was forced to reduce the size of Portion 114 to bring it
into the 80—chain limit[...]ay was then 71
years old.

The landform consisted of a moderately inclined rise to the crest of the ridge taking in

most of Portions 113 and 114. The area on the river was g[...]0 acres were ring-barked and 80
acres packed. All of Portion 114 had been ring-barked. A further inspe[...]e Portion 118, taking the land east to the border
of Dyball’s selection. The LLB required that the land be fenced.

Reporting on his inspection of 10‘h March 1893, Inspector Spicer questioned Gr[...]due to his age and was concerned about the state of the fences. No wonder,
as Gray had been dead for seven months by then and was resting in the outer circle of
the de Salis burial plot! D. S. Betts however had[...]Bank in 1899.

Dyball’s lease
Immediately south of Grays series was Dyball’s conditional lease of 634 acres,

Portion 76 taken up in July 18[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (269)[...]hment 9 showing the steep rising land to the west of the Naas
River

Tong’s 1890s land

Immediately south of Portion 76 are Portions 84, 111 and 83. Portion 84 was a
conditional purchase of Thomas Tong in July 1890. Portions 84 and 111 were
conditional leases held in virtue of the former selection. This land was an extension of
Tong’s farming activities further south.

Kelly[...]t credit
upon the selector but has the appearance of being constantly used as a home, it
contains bunk[...]and some 20 acres was packed.

The land consisted of about 500m of gently inclined land of about a 12% gradient
followed by about 1km of land rising steeply (gradient 38%) to the crest of the range.
It is clear from later evidence that t[...]in April 1890 and in turn it came into the hands
of the Union Bank in October 1892. They sold[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (270)[...]unding these portions were two conditional leases of Portion 82 (some 960
acres) of July 1890. Patrick Kelly held a large amount of marginal land from 1890
onwards. It seems from ev[...]lis employee and was allowed to select
Portion 96 of 40 acres in June 1881. This was the start of the farm “Naas Valley”.
Portion 112 of 120 acres was selected in July 1883. Portion 41 of 100 acres was added
in December 1883 and Portion 48 of 40 acres in October 1884. These portions fronted[...]g a block running from Naas Creek east to the top of the Clear Range.

On survey of Portions 96 and 112 in August 1883 improvements of a brush fence, hut
and garden worth £38 were rec[...]n found fencing valued
at £24-2. A second series of inspections found the same improvements but that more
clearing and fencing had occurred, bringing the value of improvements to £141 on

both portions at[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (271)[...]pected Portion 41 in July 1887 finding 32 chains of 6-wire fence and 20
chains of log and brush fences and 6 acres in cultivation. The survey of Portion 48 in
February 1885 showed improvements of a fence running through the portion valued at
£5-10, which was the property of the de Salises. Further inspections were not
corr[...]h Tong’s application for the yearly
instalments of interest on the land to be reduced noted that he[...]cultivation fronting Naas Creek and that the rest of the land was grazed. It seems most
of the improvements were on the land fronting Naas C[...]ll area suitable for cultivation
and a large area of not particularly good sheep country to the cast.[...]ted in October 1878. This land took in about 800m
of gently inclined land and the balance steep rising land. Arthur Herbert Graham
McDonald, a cousin of the De Salises, purchased both lots at auction. N[...]LTO Vol 557 Folio
135). This seems to be the site of the farm known naturally enough as “Glencoe”[...]oe Oldfield (junior) selected a 40 acres portion ofof cultivation was doubled in value to £20. It was[...]From Bob Booth who George de Salis considered one of the poorest squatters.
Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (272)288

The portion had about 540m of gently inclined land then rose steeply in a compl[...]in 1910) Portions 94 and 93 were taken up as part of this series.
Apart from Portion 63 the whole seri[...].

Lenane

Portion 101 was a conditional purchase of 40 acres in August 1881 and Portion 102 of
300 acres was an additional conditional purchase[...]n 92 was taken up as another conditional purchase of Joe Oldfield
(junior) in August 1893 along with[...]t these into a holding, extending into the Parish of Yarara.

CATCHMENT 10: NAAS VALLEY (WEST SIDE NAAS RIVER)

The Naas Valley catchment runs from the junction of the Naas and Gudgenby Creek
south. For the purposes of this study the catchment is confined to the main flat which
is terminated by the southern boundary of the Parish of Cuppacumbalong. To the east
it is bounded by the[...]illy Range. The
main flat is on the western side of the Naas River and extends for about 1km
westwards before rising 400m in about 1.5 km to the crest of the Billy Range. In
contrast with the eastern side of the Naas River the western side flats are flatter, wider
and the gradient to the crest of the Billy Ranges is more moderate. Therefore the[...]ng and cultivation than that on the opposite side
of the river.

Naas Valley was probably occupied by 1834 as part of Herbert’s Naas run. Later it
was occupied as Na[...]w. The first
selection in the catchment was that of Thomas Warner who took a 40 acres selection,
Port[...]pted selections by the Herbert family and
dummies of Portion 4 of 100 acres, Portion 5 of 50 acres, Portion 6 of 110 acres and
Portion 7 of 100 acres. These were all made on the 5th March 1863. Warner made an
additional purchase of another 40 acres, Portion 8, in September 1864.[...]ner’s selection was described as being the site of “an old stockyard, now
abandoned of Mr. Chippendale”. The plan of Portion 3 shows a cultivation paddock
on G[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (273)[...]0 Naas Valley (west side Naas river)

“about V4 of a mile up the creek from an old garden fence formerly in occupance of
Mr. Chippendale”. Portion 6 was “near an old[...]Chippendales”
this is shown on the portion plan of September 1864. So clearly Chippendale had
improved Naas Valley by construction of yards, fenced areas off for cultivation and
estab[...]selections were allowed to lapse due to the lack of survey, L. S.
Thompson being blamed for th[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (274)[...]se, Stockyards, fencing and clearing to the value of £75. The plan of the
portions made in September 1864 shows a fence[...]and 8 are virtually empty
and no further details of improvements can be ascertained.

George de Salis[...]e portion plan.

The next action was the purchase of measured Portions 3, 5 and 7 (i.e.. lapsed
conditional purchase’s of the Herbert family), a total of 250 acres by Leopold de Salis
in March 187[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (275)[...]land at the time. George describes the inspection of his
selection as occurring on the 15‘ December[...]cres for Warner”.
This was the lapsed Portion 4 of 100 acres which Warner selected on 24Lh December[...]m and may have been taken to prevent any
thoughts of expansion. The conditional purchase file only ha[...]it so no
improvements are recorded.

This series of conditional purchases, built on Portion 6, secured the middle of Naas
Valley for the de Salis family by 1874, leav[...]rms. The key point is that there was only a strip of flat land along Naas River,
which would have been useful for intensive farming. By the end of 1874 the de Salis
had control of most of this land (around 1.5 miles) with Thomas Warner h[...]base for additional selections.

The next series of selections were those of Series 2 based on a conditional purchase of
40 acres by Thomas Oldfield acting on behalf of George de Salis. Oldfield took
Portions 59, 60 a[...]ions in July 1875. These were located at the
head of Naas Valley to the west of Portion 3. This area was a wide flat of about 1.4
km west of the Naas river and bounded on the north by the Gudgenby river. These
selections secured most of the land for the de Salises. Improvements on surv[...]inspection in October 1878 revealed improvements of a very poor hut and
ring-barking on all th[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (276)[...]e that encompassed the land to the west and south
of the original purchase. In the south it filled th[...]alis also expanded his own holdings in the middle of the catchment by
additional conditional purchase of Portion 100, some 100 acres south of Portion 6 in
July 1881. To this he added Portion 44 of 62 acres in July 1883. George originally
wanted t[...]earing.

These last two selections marked the end of de Salis’ selections until 1890 (although
Leopo[...]at
that stage two large holdings, one at the head of the valley and the other in the middle
with a small gap of about 40 chains between them. This gap was fille[...]anuary 1887. The de Salises occupied the
majority of the wide flat beside the Naas River. The remaini[...]rn hills.

A large selection was made at the head of the valley by Michael Cotter in August
1881. This[...]a prominent hill and ridge. There is a small area
of flat basically running some 300m away from the bank of the Naas River as it
curves around this bill.

Se[...]George
de Salis in July 1890 followed by a series of selections and conditional leases taking
in Porti[...]the de Salis freehold
up to the crest (and over) of the Billy Range. I suspect these selections were[...]er small selections were made at the southern end of the valley by the Oldfield
(circa 1900) and Kirc[...]F. O’Conner took the tempting gap
in the middle of the De Salis selections in 1900. These selections followed the
abolition of the reserves. Nothing really remains from[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (277)[...]oon Creek is a small creek running for a distance of some 6km north and lying
west of the main crest of the Billy Range. For the first 5km it runs throu[...]n through this valley. The valley
itself consists of a moderately inclined slope from the ridge on the[...]west before rising steeply to
reaching the crest of the western boundary of the catchment.

The first selection in this catchment was a conditional purchase of 100 acres by James
Oldfield who selected Portion 2. This was followed by selections of Portions 12 and
Portion 11, each of 100 acres in May and June 1881. The selections fr[...]idge crest 150m
above Half Moon creek.

On survey of Portion 2 in April 1881 the only improvement was[...]886, listing a two-room slab hut, a shed, 4 acres of
cultivation, an old hut, garden and stockyard and[...]took Portion
22 as a conditional lease in virtue of his selection of Portion 21 (which was in the
Gudgenby River Catch[...]p by Campbell and
Circuit. Selection in the south of the catchment took place circa 1903—05.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (278)[...]_CATCHMENT 12: NAAS FLAT

Naas flat is an area of extensive flats adjacent to the Gudgenby River a[...]oombah Creek.

The catchment was the home station of the Naas run of William Herbert who
established himself here in t[...]the

runs as being separate. There is no ev1dence of a separate residence for the

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (279)[...]d. William Herbert
was buried there in 1857.

The official boundary between Cuppacumbalong and Naas i[...]the Gudgenby river and, if any sense can be made of
the 1848 boundary description, this seems to be i[...]lan (circa 1880) the run was incorporated as
part of Cuppacumbalong Holding and accuracy of internal boundaries between the
incorporated runs[...]Naas and Naas Valley were sold to the partnership of Emmanuel Mandelson and
Moses Joseph in October 1866.184 Mandelson and Joseph are of interest due to their
being a rare example of Jewish squatters. The purchase included the two s[...]runs. It was
mortgaged for £7505-6 (Land Titles Office Old System Title Book 701 folio 101). It
see[...]into financial trouble as well as being accused of stealing one of the McKeahnie’s
bullocks. The Australian Joint[...]de Salis for £4160 in October 1869 (Land titles Office, Old
System, Book 118 Folio 135).

Michael and Thomas Herbert applied for a pre-emptive purchase of a portion of their
run and accordingly the land was surveyed in early 1859. The Portion No.32, Parish
of Naas185 took in some 160 acres with a 27-link frontage on the Gudgenby river. The
plan of the portions shows farms buildings, yards, a garden and cultivation paddocks.

The first series of conditional purchases occurred with the series of conditional
purchases on the northern bank of the Gudgenby river (partly in Catchment 4) in
187[...]reek
and ran back into the steeply rising flanks of Mount Tennent.

The next selections were a series of conditional purchases made by Thomas Gregory.
Starting in 1881 he took Portion 10 of 80 acres, Portion 1 of 80 acres in 1882,'86
Portion 15 of 240 acres in 1883 and Portion 17 of 100 acres in 1884. These took in the
flats on the west side of the Gudgenby River and were bounded to the north[...]in 1890 John Gregory took up the land to the west of these
portions as a conditional lease and a condi[...]e surveyors forgot it or thought it was in Parish of Cuppacumbalong when Portion
l was being su[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (280)[...]s is despite Gregory’s holding the largest area of flat. However
the de Salis diaries report Tom Gr[...]e Salis diaries 6th October 1881). In the context of the diaries, this
would seem to be a friendly sel[...]acres had been grubbed and burnt off. Total value of
improvements was £39.

A second inspection in Ju[...]Portion 1, inspected in July 1887, had 26 chains of 6-wire fencing and 20 acres
cleared and grubbed while Portion 15 and 50 chains of fencing and 80 acres ring-
barked. Portion 17 was[...]d and 100 acres scrubbed and there were 30 chains of 6-wire fencing.

'87 There is no mention of them in the de Salis diaries. f

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (281)[...]est down the Gudgenby River valley

The aggregate of Gregory’s land was 500 acres, which was improved to the value of
1314-50 (Lands Department - Conditional Sales Bra[...]to
the west.

The remaining land was left as part of the Cuppacumbalong pastoral holding except
for Po[...]nt purchase in 1882. This was
located on 51 acres of land at the junction of Half Moon Creek and the Gudgenby
River. Leopold d[...]fencing
and 6 acres cleared. On survey the value of improvements was found to be £51, the

house bei[...]de Salis took Portion 20 immediately to the west of the Naas pre-emptive
right as a 360-acres conditional lease. This was part of the Series 2 conditional
purchases in the Naas Valley catchment.

Finally, in August 1890, a small selection of 80 acres was taken up as Portion 19 by a
H[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (282)[...]t also occurred up Boroombah Creek where a series of selections were taken
in the ranges to the west of Mount Tennent (circa 1909).

In comparison with other areas of the Cuppacumbalong run the de Salises seem to
hav[...]tern

edge (and thus farthennost from Queanbeyan) of their holdings to prevent hostile

selection. Also, of all the runs, Naas had the least amount of flat and securing that
may have been of less importance than say the Naas Valley.

CATCHMENT l3: COOLEMON

The 1848 description of Coolemon as “bounded on the north by lofly mou[...]he plain and separate Coolemon from the catchment
of Peppercorn creek. To the south the plain is bound[...]he north and north west. Immediately to the north of Howell’s Peak is
a saddle that separates “the[...]n in January 1872 from O’Rourke for £275.

The official boundary of Coolemon run seems to be the boundaries of the Parishes of
Coolemon and Murray. This includes land on Pepper[...]the 1848 Gazette the boundary was along the ridge of the Coolemon
Range not on the creek. The answer, I think, is that the boundary of the run and of the
parish was not surveyed until the 18808 when[...]oss the Coolemon Range.

'38 Thomas Fishlock, one of de Salis’ employees had lived on Coolemo[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (283)[...]irty years and there were improvements consisting of

“the old homestead” and stock yards on the r[...]no selection on

the run until 1876 there are few official records of improvements on the run.

"‘9 A different[...]duced map obscured the portions with the contours of

the terrain.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (284)[...]o
have been supervising on Coolemon over a number of seasons.

George’s initial trip to Coolemon was[...]took

about a day. When they got there the party of men set fire to the plains to promote
fresh grow[...]o Coolemon. In 1875 they took their first flock of 10,670
sheep up. At Coolemon the flock was split[...]1876 the de Salises began fencing the boundaries of the run. This
required negotiation with adjoining squatters, particularly McDonald of the
Peppercorn run. Typically there was disagreement about some aspects of where the
fence would run but as gentleman they r[...]n May. From 1878 the de Salises kept a
small herd of cattle up on Coolemon which seems to have been lo[...]sheep and cattle, least for the owners and others of
equivalent status. George records shooting and va[...]ations admired. In March 1878 George lead a party of visitors
including his sister Nina and Emily and Mary Smith, daughters of the Rev Pierce
Gulliard Smith, the Anglican vicar of Canberra. They visited Murray’s Cave and a
day[...]Mary Smith. This seems to have come

as something of a surprise to Mary who thought about it for five[...]about it. George de Salis, taking up a selection of 320
acres on Coolemon on the 16th November 1876,[...]at £70. These were
Portions 1 & 2 in the Parish of Murray.

'90 We know Fishlock was with the cattle[...]tion is vague. George in a
letter to the Minister of Lands mentions that men and cattle have be[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (285)[...]ing the following winter afier that at intervals of
two or three months occasionally staying there a week for muster. From the
time of his marriage in March 1878 he never remained a si[...]in October 1882 but as there was
over £40 worth of improvements on the land the Lands Departm[...]
Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (286)[...]the environment and related to the establishment of a homestead.

Tom Oldfield selected a 40-acre con[...]south and the other north. The Pockets were
east of the Cooleman Plains but within the run boundaries. They were the first flat on
a series of flats and plains west of the Bimberi range. Oldfield's selection made in[...]as followed by an additional conditional purchase of 600 acres in
February 1882.

Surveyor Lester foun[...]d roughly the same improvements at £160 approval of the

series was given in October 1887. Again the[...]o facilities not to the
landscape.

The Treachery of the Campbells

On the 22nd January 1882 while ret[...]ned
that Frederick Campbell had taken a selection of 640 acres on Coolemon (de Salis
diaries). This wa[...]and Archibald McDonald had taken four selections of 640 acres
together on the 19‘'1 January 1887 on[...]the same time (around 3pm)
and all paid deposits of £160 as the selections were so large. McD[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (287)[...]nother squatters run- he has been told by several of the towns people
that his action was mean and ben[...]is response was to act to secure the key portions of the runs. The next
Lands Day was the 2"d February[...]e areas

be reserved from selection “on account of the many natural curiosities” (de Salis
diaries 25th January 1882).

The second of February was obviously going to be a day of great tension for the de
Salises. It started with[...]had been reserved the previous
day (R 658 County of Cowley, Parish of Coolemon Gazetted on the 1St February
1882). Geor[...]wed them “Papa’s letter” (presumably
notice of the Reserve in that area) so they abandoned the idea and gave George the

notices and descriptions of the blocks they intended selecting (de Salis diar[...]applications for each block so that in the event of
a dispute the would have a better chance in a bal[...]he selections were:

191 Although the reputations of the Campbells as gentlemen had been suspect since[...]oe
there was an underlying motivation in this act of aggressive selection. After Frederick Campbell
ac[...]in 1881, he began to fence in the estate and that of
his father at Belconnen. The fencing cut the road[...]against George de Salis for trespass and damages of £1000.

This was similar to the better known actions of Campbell and Guise against John Southwell and
Wil[...]e “gum tree war” resulting in the declaration
of the Tharwa Reserve).

'92 Oldfield select[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (288)Thomas Oldfield 600 acres Parish of Coolemon Portion 8 the Pocket

John Flanagan 320 acres Parish of Murray Portion 6 17 Flat

William Harris 320 acres Parish of Murray Portion 1 The Plain
Later Edward Gregory took 320 acres'93 at the Blue Waterhole, Parish of Murray,
Portion 9 ((de Salis dairies 2"d February[...]glad that we have been able [0 save
the best part of Coolemon” (de Salis dairies 2"‘1 February 188[...]well the de Salises had achieved the
reservation of the Coolemon Caves - now part of the Kosciusko National Park.

The land selected b[...]ll and his dummies were Portions 11, 12, 13
andl4 of the Parish of Murray. Frederick Campbell’s portion was voided[...]conditional purchase on Cave
Creek in the middle of Portion 13 on 2"d March 1882. This selection was no more than
of nuisance value. No improvements were made and no[...]Later
inspections indicated an increase in value of improvements to £228-again mainly
fixtures such[...]n inspected in April 1885 and recorded a slab but of
two rooms with an iron roof valued at £30, 3 miles of 6—wire fence £180 sheep yards
and stock[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (289)total value of improvements was £360. The land was transferred[...]ut with iron roof valued at £20 and some 4 miles of wire
fencing valued at £222. The but was located on a track to Blue Water Holes and now
goes by the name of Coolamine Homestead.

Manton’s inspection on th[...]upon the cp for
three months after the expiration of the term required by the Act. The
place has all the appearance of having been used as a bona fide home”.

Folio[...]ected before him.‘94 He
therefore got a portion of 365 acres. When Manton inspected the portion in A[...]y comfortable slab but with an iron roof, 5 acres of cultivation and 2.5
miles of 6-wire fence. Later on his second inspection in J[...]purchase in
February 1883 and took in the balance of the original Portion 13 less Portion 10. The
land[...]’ selection was thought to be immediately
south of the 640 acres of Portion l3.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (290)These four selections created a run of four square miles on the northern part of the
Coolemon Plains. The improvements were mainly fencing with two substantial houses
being established. Of McDonald’s on Portion 12 nothing remains but Coolamine on
Portion 11 remained in use and is now part of Kosciusko National Park.I95 In

comparison with t[...]ester on 6th December 1882 who noted improvements of but
£18 and yard £2. Flanagan was not there “[...]here with his wife
and children through the snow of last winter, and when it melted he took
her away to a station of Mr de Salis’s (Naas) one of his children being ill —
after that he went reaping and shearing for a length of time and is now
engaged in splitting timber to fe[...]ad been resided in, but now it has the
appearance of being deserted, selector not upon the land[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (291)[...]by Joseph Fall
who had selected Portion 5, Parish of Murray and Portion 1, Parish of Cooleman but
was forfeited on the 3rd June 1891 for non-residence along with the rest of Fall’s land.
It was reserved from conditional purchase by R 14058 of 4/7/1 891.

It is not clear whether Edward Gregor[...]his brother
John at Naas I think Edward was more of a “fiiendly selector” rather than a dummy.
The description of the land was somewhat convoluted and vague, the C[...]ut by two large gullies and fronts the steep side of Cave Creek.

The land as selected was in fact part of Reserve R658 of 1St February 1882 that was
later cancelled on the 13th March 1882 to be replaced by R 664 of 13‘h March 1882.
An area of 40 acres was excised and then later made availabl[...]ecessary improvements and requesting an extension
of time. He was advised to await Manton’s inspecti[...]ecessary improvements and requesting an extension of time. He had
apparently submitted his final decla[...]th Section on 14th May 1887, listing
improvements of house, fencing and clearing valued at £14[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (292)[...]d man and was not residing upon the land at

date of visit, the but has the appearance of having occasionally used — Two bunks in

the hu[...]place very little
used. By the general appearance of but and surroundings I am led to believe that the[...]1887 the LLB held an inquiry into the conditions of residence and
improvements on Gregory’s conditi[...]brother John). The LLB found that the conditions ofof being used as a home.”

Folio 89/18322 L[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (293)[...]en. George de Salis applied for
Portion 6, Parish of Murray as an additional conditional purchase and[...]e
only improvements were fencing.

The settlement of Coolemon run was really a result of the dispute between the de
Salises and the Campbe[...]growth for the newly shom sheep to graze on. Most of the huts were
abandoned or possibly moved to a ce[...]he husbanded the de
Salis estate with assistance of his son George de Salis. The overall trend was fo[...]alis flock and year long grazing for a
small mob of cattle. The Naas runs were a logical expansion of the Cuppacumbalong
Run and fitted into the existing patterns of movement through the landscape and the
existing patterns of grazing. However the addition of Naas changed the
geographically central part of the run from Cuppacumbalong homestead to the area[...]diaries show that Naas in many ways was the
focus of pastoral activity, with the homestead acting as a[...]iage). Cuppacumbalong was still the social
centre of the run, convenient to the Cunninghams at Lanyon[...]eir loved ones.

Creating the de Salis estate out of the runs necessarily involved working through the
various Crown Lands Acts that controlled the alienation of Crown Land. I say through
because, as shown, the de Salises did not exactly comply with the letter or spirit of the
law, but the legislation did set the framework of domesticity that the de Salises had to

'96 All t[...]lps as the “Man from Snowy River" was something of a
pyromaniac (Hancock 1972:143-147).

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (294)[...]ge reserve.

Initial selections were in the north of the run in Catchments 1 to 3 and in Catchment 6.[...]the de Salises did not initiate the proclamation of water and
other reserves to secure elements of the run from selection. By selected conditional
p[...]ek) and to establish portions along the west bank
of the Murrumbidgee to the north of Tharwa. Here they had to fend off the Oldfields[...]nd
when matters reached a point where a key piece of land was to be selected, it seems
the de Salises[...]s act pales into insignificance with the reports of squatter
hostility to selectors and wholesale cor[...]It seems that the de Salises employed a strategy of trying to come to terms
with Joe Oldfield and were prepared to allow the northern parts of Cuppacumbalong
to be used by him.

From 1872 a series of selections were established mainly to secure land on the Naas
Runs and the flats and hills to the west of the Murrumbidgee to the south of Tharwa.
These series seem to have secured the important areas of the run and by 1880 the de
Salises were allowing[...]e Salises were surprised by the hostile selection of Frederick
Campbell and his dummies that cut 4 square miles of flat from Coolemon. This was
their biggest loss[...]ce in the short term. '98 Still the major failure of the de Salises
was to leave Coolemon unsecured. P[...]lis strategy to deal with selectors was a mixture of attempting to
accommodate them or even assist the[...]did in most cases, or trying to
minimise the size of land selected by counter selections of key land or, in the case of
Coolemon, using reserve creation to limit the possibilities for expansion of selected
land. Accommodation seems to have been a[...]n ruinous selection wars. No doubt the assistance of selectors was seen by

'98 Of course in the long term Campbell got Cuppa[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (295)[...]others) as being virtuous in his role as a member of the
squattocracy and a gentleman, assisting the i[...]ld afford to be generous as they had secured many of the flats within their run,
leaving selectors only small areas of first class land and allowing them to select larger
areas of steeply sloping, poorly watered, second class land. For example in Catchment
9 on the east side of the Gudgenby and Naas Rivers selection by friendly selectors
was encouraged. This took in small arcs of flat and large areas of slopes. On the other
side of these rivers where there were larger areas of flat to be selected the de Salises
took up all t[...]eir limit, if not quite
breaking the law. The use of dummies, false declarations of residence and general
overclaiming of the value of improvements certainly raise questions about hone[...]o evidence to show that Leopold de Salis, because of his
position, had any greater influence in the L[...]t were moved from series to series as the demands of
residence required. Most of the improvement was in the area of clearing; virtually all
the portions were ring-ba[...]d. Fencing
initially was tied in with the pattern of fencing over the whole run so a fence might
run d[...]ing requirements, particularly after the passing

of the 1884 Crown Lands Act, fencing began to follow the boundaries of selections or
series of selections.

The impact of the de Salises on the landscape was driven by the requirements of the
Crown Land Acts as well as good management of their runs. The first selections made
in the cat[...]en ring-barked and cleared to
increase the extent of grass for the sheep. In the early 18705 selections were made
around Naas, the western side of the Murrumbidgee (particularly in the hilly land to
the west of the earlier selections) and in Spring Gully. In the early 18803 selections
took up more of the hilly country particularly around Tharwa and west of the
Murrumbidgee and west of the Gudgenby River. Although these areas are reco[...]on
deteriorated, the de Salises undertook a burst of selection and obtained conditional
leases on a lot of hilly country, presumably to add to the assets they could mortgage.

Overall the key aspects of the de Salis husbandry is the interaction of the Crown Land
Acts and their administration with the environment. The concern of the Lands
Department and the Crown Land re[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (296)[...]hen in the late 18705 and 18805 they
secured some of the hilly land as selections, as well as allowing[...]rtainly there would have been many more skeletons of ring-barked trees (these
were noted as a common f[...]Griffith Taylor in 1910 (Taylor 1910).
The area of grassland along the margins of the flats was created as the land was taken
up a[...]evidently more regeneration. There
is no evidence of the early fences of the 18603 as all the fences encountered were
orie[...]points. There has been an increase in the density of
settlement with the Cuppacumbalong run being spli[...]there are more fences. However the broad picture of grassy flats with
grassy hills rolling into dens[...]lopes remains the same.

To see the ultimate loss of Cuppacumbalong and Coolemon and the bankruptcy of the
de Salises in the context of the tough economic conditions of the 18905 is important
for the overall assessment of their success in husbanding the run. Like Wright[...]bad judgements but the
bankruptcy came at the end of his long and fruitful life when his children were
married and were well established, capable of making their own way in life. Leopold
de Salis ha[...]ot an
inconsiderable achievement.

The husbanding of the de Salis estate from 1855 to 1892 demonstrate[...]actors that ultimately contribute to the creation of a squatting landscape.
Underpinning the process was the notion of respectability as expressed through
domesticity.[...]Australia
would be advantaged by the development of a class of respectable yeoman farmers.
This lead to b[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (297)CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSION -THE LAND OF THE

GOLDEN FLEECE

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (298)Land of the Golden Fleece (1926) Arthur Streeton

INTRODUCTION

In 1826, James Atkinson could consider the interior of New South Wales (South-
Eastem Australia) as empt[...]int and supported
by Government. As a consequence of this process, the landscape was irreversibly
chan[...]ered and “owned” place with the accoutrements of settlement;
fences, houses, woolsheds, yards, dam[...]ing, ring-barking and the ubiquitous rabbit. Land of the
Golden Fleece (1926), one of the last of Arthur Streeton’s paintings, celebrates this
ch[...]aura Run in Western Victoria against the backdrop
of the Grampian Ranges. This marvellous image of the “natural” landscape shows
sheep, a dam an[...]es but in such a way that they are naturally part of the
landscape, their position unquestioned and ce[...]magic. The sheep are
in harmony with the massive of Mount William and the Grampians behind them.

'99 Streeton was the most prominent of the Heidelberg school of plain air painters the first school of
Australian painters (excluding Aboriginal painters). They produced a number of paintings that have
become national icons dealing with the historical themes of pioneering, sheep farming and selecting.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (299)316

This was the predominant view of Australian history at the time. Australia — the Land
of the Goldem Fleece, where squatting and the wool i[...]d by
historians pointing out the hegamonic nature of squatting, the removal of the
Aboriginies and the negative environmental impact of squatting. In a sense the “Whig
View” was cha[...]transformation from “empty land” to the Land of the
Golden Fleece was more than a few men of “great force and endurance” setting out
and establishing a new country. Neither was it a case of “environmental vandals”
recklessly displacing the Aborigines and despoiling the land. The process of creating
the squatting landscape was more complex[...]ng
at a national level being applied at the level of the individual squatter and squatting
run to prod[...]llenged the established views.

Using the concept of cultural landscape applied to historical archaeol[...]not totalise history but
allows the understanding of how the processes worked on an individual run or
landscape. Using specific case studies of Lanyon and Cuppacumbalong, the
interaction of the broad scale processes with local environments and individual
squatters, the production of individual squatting landscapes has been examined[...]earch themes were used to organise the discussion of squatting landscapes and
these are addressed belo[...]cess for initiating squatting was the development of the wool industry
and the need for large areas of cheap land on which to graze sheep. Squatting was
created by the refusal of the Colonial government to allow expansion beyond the

limits of location. The squatters ignored such a prohibitio[...]try to make
their fortune.

The pioneering phase of squatting, that is the taking up and establishing of new
squatting runs occurred over a long period of time, from the early 18205 when
squatters moved beyond the limits of location, to the 18605 when the last squatting
runs west of the Darling River were established. In that period of some 40 years, the
method of pioneering seems unchanged. Small parties of explorers, either official
parties or unofficial parties of squatters scouted the country looking for suitable areas
for runs. Settlement followed by a process of leap-frogging beyond existing runs and
then in-filling the gaps. By the 18405 when the process of squatting was formalised in
legislation the period following the process of taking up runs was often followed by

Government[...]to runs which were put up for
tender.

Two phases ofof the arid country which
formed much of Western NSW. Prior to reaching this countr[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (300)317

into (and which were probably partially the result of Aboriginal burning practices)
were readily adapta[...]t where there was less grass,
less water and lots of saltbush squatting settlement had to take account of these
limitations. From the mid-18305 squatters gradually moved into the west taking up
runs on frontages of water courses and other water bodies but leaving gaps of
unsettled or lightly occupied land on the treeless plains. Gradually a method of
holding these lands was developed where dams, tan[...]as improvement purchases. This allowed settlement of the
Western Plains of NSW which occurred from the late 18305 until the[...]run to have established a head station
consisting of crude huts or tents and for the sheep flocks (of 500 to 1000 sheep) to be
located in outstations across the landscape area. The boundaries of runs were
established on natural features or mark[...]nment was readily adapted to grazing. Small areas of cultivation
were established adjacent to the head[...]ide some vegetables to add to the
relentless diet of meat.

While the process of pioneering settlement across South-Eastem Australia took place
over a period of some 40 years, the period of pioneering on each run seems to have
been compara[...]d writing as well as the more sporting activities of squatting such as chasing
stock and shooting things. This period of construction marks the end of the pioneering
phases on a squatting run. Typically this occurs much earlier than the usually given
date of 1848 when squatters were given security of tenure.

Lanyon presents an interesting case study in squatting, being a mixture of grazing on
freehold land and squatting. James Wri[...]ve been
attracted to sheep farming by the reports of the profits to be made. Wright at least
seems to[...]a
run his brother William came out with the bulk of the capital. Neither Wright or
Lanyon could be co[...]tely Wright’s difficulties lay in this mixture of land tenure as the cost of
purchasing the freehold estate imposed a debt on[...]quatting mixture was reflected in the operations of Lanyon, which was
run as a mixture of sheep grazing and intensive agriculture and dairy[...]activities were located close to the head station of Lanyon. Sheep flocks were
dispersed across the l[...]landscape only around the head station. There was of

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (301)[...]landscape had become “owned”. It was the
task of the respectable squatter to take this owned waste land and improve it for the
betterment of his family and the common good.

From squatter to squattocracy

The process of moving from being a squatter to the squattocracy was one of asserting
ones right to be considered respectable[...]nce to contemporary
standards such as the “cult of domesticity” as expressed through their actions,
appearance, and the husbandry of their property. The rapid construction of
comfortable houses, equipped with at least the trappings of domesticity, the
development of landscaped gardens, the separation from the worke[...]ing sheds) after a run was established was a sign of the respectable
squatters. Furthermore, the act of establishing a squatting run was seen as being

v[...]or both the squatter
and the colony.

The process of asserting their respectability separated the squa[...]by Governor Bourke who
argued for the sanctioning of squatting. It also allowed the squatters to make[...]Governor Gipps' plans for more formal
regulation of squatting.

At Lanyon, James Wright was keen to assert his social position. As part of
constructing the Lanyon estate he moved to displa[...]vidence
relating to the buildings at Lanyon, none of the extant buildings can be convincingly
argued to be from the Wright era so that Wright’s expression of his social position
mainly has to be read through[...]rather than, as was hoped, through a
combination of documentary and archaeological evidence.

The Inquiry into the Administration of Justice at Queanbeyan reveals Wright as a
person[...]aking a socially disgusting and
improper practice of inspecting a convicts back after flogging. Wright is shown by
this incident to be a person of obvious social status (other wise he would not have
been a Justice of the Peace) but whose respectability might be seen[...]ight’s bankruptcy inventory lists various items of material culture that show
Wright as being of genteel respectability and certainly maintaining appearances even
at the edge of the limits of location.

The analysis of the Wright era at Lanyon showed an ambiguity in Wright’s
performance of his social position as a J .P. and in his husbanding of Lanyon. '

Although he did go bankrupt he[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (302)[...]part from the roads issue, de Salis’ husbanding of the run shows that he was able to
resolve most di[...]the Land Acts and build up a considerable estate
of freehold land.

Ultimately the environment brough[...]gued
that selectors and squatters shared concepts of domesticity and that many squatters
share the aims of selectors in establishing homes for their familie[...]as obviously considerable
hostility.

In the case of the de Salis’ at Cuppacumbalong a variety of responses to selection can
be seen. In the case of hostile selectors, the de Salis’ moved to block[...]ly using their influence to obtain
the selection of an important area of land. They aimed to quarantine selection in
particular areas of Cuppacumbalong and later Coolemon. This was done by
combining the use of the Lands Acts and a shrewd evaluation of the economic
potential of the landscape. These skills allowed the de Salis’ to secure the most
important areas of Cuppacumbalong - the flats. The de Salis strateg[...]ummies to select in their interest and the
making of false declarations as to residence. Having seemed[...]ployees, to select
on Cuppacumbalong.

One aspect of the Lands Acts not discussed by the historians ha[...]ional purchase. In the de Salis case the majority
of these improvements were in the nature of ring-barking which Leopold de Salis had

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (303)quite strong views about. It is possible, in the absence of the legal requirement to
improve, that Leopold would have ring-barked much of Cuppacumbalong out of
conviction of its positive effects. However given the requireme[...]he Lands Acts, ring-barking was used to open much of the land,
promote grass coverage and fulfil the requirement to improve. It has been shown that
the impact of these improvements in individual catchments is related to the nature of
selection. Thus, the impact on the landscape of squatting and of selection is not
universal but variable depending[...]was husbanded.

More research into the mechanics of selection across NSW and Victoria will help
provide a better picture of selection and the squatter/selector relationship than is
currently available. Although the reports of the Parliamentary committees are useful,
they are[...]As this study has demonstrated there is a wealth of
detail in the conditional purchase files and in[...]ies
have been undertaken then the overall picture of the nature and effects of selecting in
South-Eastern Australia will become[...]LUSION

The squatting landscape is a rich texture of historical processes, individual responses,
and t[...]tself. As a whole, squatting is an important part of
Australia’s history, historically it has been r[...]is
thesis has struggled to go beneath the surface of these historical views and bring out
both the ind[...]ng the
landscape more interesting for the stories of Wright and the de Salis family. The result
has be[...]and subtle and adds richness to our understanding of how Australia’s landscape was
created.

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MANUSCRIPT SOURCES

This thesis contains a large number of references to archival sources, notably the

Cond[...]general series is cited below.

National Library of Australia

George de Salis Diaries and notebooks[...]epasturing Licences.
Colonial Secretary, Register of Applications from individuals for Depasturing Lic[...]yan —Sydney State Records X950 Reel 2223

Bench of Magistrates: Deposition Book, Queanbeyan Bench,
L[...]nch, Correspondence Files
Lands Department - Head Office, Conditional Purchase Registers

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (335)[...]urveyor General, Letters Received.

Supreme Court of NSW: Bankruptcy File: packet 858 (Wright).

Count[...]were lithographed
and published. The lithographs of the current editions of County and Parish Maps

available for sale at the[...]ervation and Lands
Management).

Current editions of lithographs of each Parish or County were placed into use in the
various Lands Department Offices. Changes were marked up on the plans, which[...]by the Lands Department for record
purposed. Most of the charting copies of the County and Parish plans are held in State
Records. During the course of this, project State Records and the former Lands

Department began to copy the plans with the aim of producing a CD or Internet site of
plans.

Plans of the County of Cowley, and the Parishes of Boorombah, Congwarra, Coolemon,
Cuppacumbalong, G[...]State Records were
used in this thesis. The plans of the Parish of Naas was located in the Goulbum Office of
CALM who kindly allowed me to make copies[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (336)INTRODUCTION

The Appendix is the first part of the review of the cultural landscape idea. It covers the
emergence of the concept and its use in the area of historical or cultural geography. It has
been included in the thesis more for the sake of completeness so that the concepts
discussed in Ch[...]life randomly but are seen to have a
deep history of their own. It is also necessary to emphasise that this review focuses on the
use of the cultural landscape concept by geography, as t[...]found
the concept. However, there are other users of the concept notably in the area of
landscape architecture, urban design and in art history, which should be acknowledged
again for the sake of completeness. This review does not aim for a total coverage of the
concept of cultural landscapes, which would be a thesis in i[...]he earliest reference to landscape is in the
Book of Psalms (48.2) as the Hebrew “nofi” which has the connotation of English
“scenery”. An alternative reading however, sees the word as part of a description of a
landscape rather than being a word meaning landscape.l The actual life history of the
word and its varying meanings can be traced t[...]andscape as scenery or more particularly an image of
scenery in a painting and landscape as an area of land (which could also be argued is
scenery excep[...]ery. The
second definition, landscape as an area of land, entered the language around 1860 and
was taken up by geographers and turned into the concept of the cultural landscape.2

Background on the history of geography

At the outset something of the history of geography needs to be explained in order to put
the development of cultural landscapes into context. The formal discipline of geography
began to form along with the discipline of history in the Nineteenth Century (Conzen
1993:3)[...]ates at least, Conzen has identified two strands of geography that
relate to history. The first is the study of the geographic influences and/or background to
history. The second is the history of exploration and history (Conzen 1993111). A third
strand is noted in European geography, that of the geographic description of colonies
which inevitably discussed their history[...]was widening as a discipline with the
development of physical geography. This resulted into a two-streamed discipline, one

' By Dr Trevor Evans of the Classics Department, University of Sydney.
2 The Oxford English Dictionary notes the[...]restingly
cites Sauer’s usage in his Morphology of Landscape article

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (337)[...]e other with cultural geography. At the beginning
of the Twentieth Century, the United States geograph[...]orical geographic
approach. He defined two forms of landscape: the Urlandschaft or landscape that exi[...]ndscape created by

human culture. The major task of geography was to trace the changes in these two
landscapes.

In contrast to Hettner's view of geography as being distinguished by its method of
studying spatial variations in regions and places[...]d Martin 19812177), Schluter looked to the impact of humans on the natural
environment rather than determination of human activities by the natural environment.
The[...]and based firmly on the fixed and movable forms of

the landscape, ignoring non-material aspects, su[...]n with environmental (or
geographic) determinants of history. Historians had also made their own link with
geography through the well-known work of Frederick Jackson Turner on frontiers.
Turner was[...]phic data such as maps but also the whole concept of
frontiers was essentially geographic in nature.

Conzen’s review of historical geography suggests that by the mid-192[...]environmental
determinism. “The first quarter of the twentieth century had witnessed Promethean battles
over the scope and orientation of American geography, in which the historical
perspective had played a critical role and produced a literature of brash generalisation
balanced precariously upon f[...]t Carl Sauer produced his paper on the Morphologz of the
Landscape in which the concept of cultural landscape was introduced. Carl Sauer, who
had been educated in Germany, was based at the University of California at Berkeley.
Sauer's paper " Th[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (338)[...]concerned with cultural landscapes. "Every field of knowledge is -'
characterised by its declared preoccupation with a certain group of phenomena” (Sauer
1925:20). Geography was assigned the study of areal knowledge or landscapes or
chorology (19251[...]ly
there but are either associated or independent of each other”. Sauer saw that the
geographer’s[...]ction between phenomena (1925:22).
Thus "the task of geography is conceived as the establishment of a critical system which
embraces the phenomenology of landscape, in order to grasp in all of its meaning and
colour the varied terrestrial scene" (Sauer 1925:25).

The concept of cultural landscape was only generally defined as part of Sauer's overall
concept of landscape. Landscape was not a scene (as in a photograph or view) but a series
of scenes. It was an area of distinct associations of forms, both physical and cultural
(1925:26). The cultural landscape was both the physical forms of significance to humans
(such as minerals) and the cultural forms of human use of the area (such as mining). A
cultural landscape's morphology was all the works of humanity that characterise the
landscape which Sa[...]al relations (1925:36), thus Sauer’s conception of cultural
landscape has a historical component to[...]on Cultural Geography (1931) Sauer made the role of cultural
landscapes more explicit. Sauer saw a parallel between the aims and methods of physical
geography and cultural geography. Cultural forms (such as habitations, fields, lines of
communications etc) were seen as having parallels with physical forms (soils, gully
erosion etc). The study of both was to be concerned with the question of origins and
transformations as in geomorphology ([...]h Sauer was familiar)
parallels the physical area of the geomorphologist. A cultural area consists “only of the
expressions of man’s tenure of the land, the cultural assemblage which records the full
measure of man’s utilisation of the surface” (Sauer 1931:33). The aim for cultural
geography was to understand the development of the cultural area, which necessitates
understandi[...]as based on morphology; "the massing and
ordering of phenomena as forms that are integrated into structures and the comparative
study of data thus organised constitute the morphologic method of synthesis, a special
empirical method" (1925230).[...]apply the
morphological approach and is critical of these for being too narrow in scope (1925:32).
Sa[...]and cultural landscapes
looking to define a body of morphologic facts in each sphere. However[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (339)358

cultural landscapes, Sauer admitted to a lack of such facts citing only forms such as
population,[...]ves but were to be found in the sister discipline of
anthropology (1941:356-357). Sauer had by that ti[...]which Sauer
was influenced by Krober is a matter of debate (see below).

Sauer’s approach to the question of historical development is through his morphologic[...]e placed in a sequential development on the
basis of inductive reasoning that allows the sequence of development, from incipient
form to final form to be discovered. (1925:30-31). In terms of the cultural landscape
Sauer saw these forms as being things like housing (including the type of structures and
their grouping) forms of production such as farms, forests, mines and so o[...]re derived by a culture group fashioning them out of the natural landscape,
“culture is the agent, t[...]l
landscape, from which supplies the material out of which the cultural landscape is
formed, remained in Sauer’s view constant. Of the geographies Sauer envisaged regional
geograph[...]that suggest explanation rather
than descriptions of culture change. In Sauer’s adoption of the Kroeber derived concept
of culture he also adopted the framework for the explanation of culture change: “Clearly
Sauer shared Kroeber’s emphasis on patterns of culture and on its essentially acquired,
transmit[...](see Lyman et al 1997).

Reactions to Sauer

One of the most influential English geographical texts of this era was Richard
Hartshome's "The Nature of Geography". First published in the Annals of the Association
of American Geographers in 1939, it was reproduced a[...]). As Smith notes "Richard Hartshome's The Nature
of Geography was embraced almost as a holy text by o[...]e examined, then current, issues about the nature of geography in light of what
had been written about them by past (mostly[...]ailed, scholarly, although highly critical, study of some aspects of geography. Central
to Hartshome's project was an inward looking view that the question of nature of

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (340)[...]geographers had
written in the past. Smith writes of this approach and its wide acceptance, as committ[...]art and intruders kept at bay by a perimeter
wall of conceptual distinctions (Smith 1989292). Inevitably Hartshome’s views clashed
with those of Sauer’s.

Sauer's understanding of landscape (as well as Sauer's approach to histori[...]the issue
by a detailed discussion on the concept ofof the term or more recent
uses of the term by US geographers (ie Sauer and his stud[...]ifficulty stemmed
apparently from the German use of the word "landschaft" to mean both the appearance of
the land as we perceive it and a modified piece of land (Hartshome 1961 : 1 50).

The German geograp[...]ning an indefinite relationship with the concept of the
perceptible landscape was required to precisely define the objects of geographic study.
Consequently geographers defined the word according to their view of what geography
should study.3 Thus while landscape is an area of some sort, what is included in the area
will vary[...]tshome 1961:158-159).

Sauer is considered guilty of the same problem, as the precise definition of landscape in
the "Morphology of Landscape" was not made clear. Hartshome argued t[...](1961:155). This to Hartshome undermined the use of the concept on the grounds
that to use landscape[...]any case landscape cannot
escape the connotations of the popular definition as being some form of view (1961:159-
160). This is hardly convincing a[...]ture or history).

Nor is Hartshome's definition of landscape as “a continuous surface of an area’7
(19612163) better than Sauer's. Harts[...]logy that obviously influences the ultimate
form of the landscape? Hartshome would do so and even would exclude underground
workings of a mine (below the surface) and include open cut mines (on the surface) all in
the name of precise definition (19611164). Hartshome’s ultimate purpose in forcing this
definition of landscape is ultimately to dismiss Sauer’s call for geography to be seen as
the study of landscapes.

3 While Hartshome sees this a[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (341)[...]and
considered that Sauer sees them as being part of an overall landscape. But from my
reading of Sauer's "Morphology" it seems to me that Sauer wa[...]) with the natural
landscape excluding the impact of humans. Secondly, within the cultural landscape,[...]tural landscape mean simply the present landscape of any inhabited region"
(1961:170). Sauer is an exc[...]torical
perspective. For it is the transformation of the natural by culture that creates cultural
landscape and it is this notion of change that interests Sauer (1926:45-46).

This "assassination of the landscape" by Hartshome was successful "in convincing
succeeding generations of English language geographers that the notion of landscape has
little or no value as a technical t[...]r things to do with his life.

The "assassination of landscape" by Hartshome was equally matched by his cliophobia
(fear of history), which Sauer later labelled the “great[...]ly about the need to understand the
"place facts" of a landscape in terms of their time relations as well as their spatial
rel[...]ther than geography.4

Hartshome saw the question of the role of geography and history as one of the three
major problems facing the geography of his time (19612175). The problem was the
apparent easy overlapping of disciplinary boundaries between history and geography.
Hartshome was concerned about the use of history to explain features in the current
landsc[...]er. The first was that given
the essential point of geography was spatial relationships, consideration of time was a
secondary task. The second viewpoint was that as geographers are concerned with the

4 Of course the study of past geographies which may or may not have any as[...]ast to move well away from Hartshome's conception of

geography yet he champions it. Maybe he j[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (342)[...], time is paramount in providing an
understanding of this (1961:176).

The latter view is ascribed to[...]studying change on
the grounds that it moves out of the technical competence of geography into history or
anthropology (1961:178-179). But of course, if geography is concerned with humans,
in[...]and time, then is not competence in history part of a
geographers training? Crowe, in particular, arg[...]to try and divorce time from space in the theatre of human
affairs" (19383).

Hartshome was also conce[...]at there "is no logical necessity for
the student of a region to examine each of the various stages of development of the area"
(1961 : 182). This a seriously flawed[...]other critics came in a speech given as President of
the Association of American Geographers in 1940 and published as Forward to
Historical Geography (1941). Noting of geographers “we can hardly claim to be getting[...]dentified a retreat
from the board spectrum view of geography to a view that geography was a small core of
things untouched (or unwanted) by other disciplin[...]not the competence, originality or significance of
research... but the admissibility of work because it may or may not satisfy a narrow
definition of geography” (1941:355). Sauer then went on to outline a broad program for
the field of historical geography based on the anthropological concept of culture.

However as Williams has noted Sauer’s[...]nd develop his interdisciplinary
work in the area of the origins of agriculture (Williams 1983).

Sauer then saw the[...]ndscape as an areal phenomena containing a series of
landscape forms (both natural and cultural) that are associated in both space and time.
The study of a cultural landscape was to be undertaken through the development of
morphologic facts and forms, and the evaluation of these facts in space and time. Sauer
saw that the understanding of the cultural landscape was derived from studying the
change from the natural landscape and the introduction of cultural forms (1925:37).

Due to Sauer’s long association with the University of California at Berkeley (be
supervised over 40 Ph.[...]gamation
has been recently questioned by a number of geographers (especially, Price and Lewis

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (343)[...]ed a cultural geographer
(1994:441)! Irrespective of Sauer’s personal position there was however a definite group
of scholars inspired by Sauer’s work if not exactly following his example or being one of
his students. At the same time there was a separate camp of geographers who where
suspicious of Sauer’s work (see Butlin 1994; Conzen 1994).

I[...]ley, New England (1929). Setting
himself the task of describing and interpreting landscapes, James beg[...]oinciding in an area with a definite combination
of the elements of a site (landform, soils and so on). This is very[...]this definition is in a sense taking snap shots of a
static landscape. For while he is aware of the historical elements in a landscape and the
ch[...]ern to another, he treats the historical elements of the

landscape as a static not dynamic element. Thus his descriptions of landscape formations
do not consider the process of change in them.

Derwent Whittlesey's concept of sequent occupancy was a rare example of a specifically
time related concept in human geo[...]lesey 1929). Whittlesey argued for a
dynamic view of human occupancy of an area arguing that each period of human
occupation carried with it the seed of its own transformation. Whittlesey was heading
al[...]upancy seems to be in the same mode as the theory of vegetative
succession and climax. As Mikesell puts it sequent occupance was similar to the concept
of the ideal erosion cycle popular with geographers[...]cept could also be used to present cross sections of
landscapes at each stage of development. “Geographers could subordinate the[...]ter graduation he was employed at Louisiana State
University where he began research using Sauer’s methods.[...]nacular
house types in Louisiana and a generation of students followed him (see Kniffen 1962,
1[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (344)[...]apping but an attempt to get an
"areal expression of ideas regarding housing" as a basis for understanding the geographic
expression of culture (1962:169). Conzen notes the importance of Kniffen and the
“Louisiana Landscape school” he spawned, in the study of the morphology of landscape
focusing on individual items of material culture which were seen as culture traits material
expressions of culture across the landscape (Conzen 1994:47-50).[...]ulture as a whole and this was a common criticism of the work produced.

While on the subject of Kniffen a word must be said about Henry Glassie. Glassie was a
student of Fred Kniffen and shared his interest in vernacula[...]Virginia (1975) is probably the most influential
of his works on architecture particularly for the ar[...]ty.5 Glassie
described this study as “the study of the architecture of past thought” (19752vii). Glassie’s
study was interesting both for its use of structuralism as a method of analysis, although
his analytical methods were rarely repeated, and for his demonstration that a study of
material culture could get away from the particularism of typology to reach in some way
the underlying framework of past life. Glassie’s approach clearly circumvented the
critique that geographical studies of the Kniffen school were an “obsessional interest in

the physical or material elements of culture rather than in its more obviously social
dimensions" (Jackson 1989:] 9).

Andrew Clark was a student of Sauer who later developed his own particular appr[...]cape. Clark's historical geography " The Invasion of New Zealand by People,
Plants and Animals" (based on his doctoral research) is a fascinating account of the
history and geography of the South Island of New Zealand,6 fails to use the concept of
cultural landscapes. Yet at times Clark comes close to discussing a form of cultural
landscape when he considers the origin of the "Englishness" of the landscape. “The South
Island was, in its cu[...]n the eighteen-nineties, very much the ‘Britain
of the South’” (19492384). But while these features are described and the origin of many
features ascribed to various economic, cultu[...]I think Clark really saw the Britishness
as a set of things brought to New Zealand rather than perhaps[...]rk’s doctoral work he embarked on a long series of studies in Canadian
geography (Clark being a Cana[...]areer Meinig noted that
although the The Invasion of New Zealand had basically applied the “Berkeley genetic

5 Glassie has of course produced many other works on folklore most of which repay investigation.
Curiously Glassie’s[...]d in the geographic world. In all the discussions of landscape
as text by the “new cultural geograph[...]Phillip in 1791! This
mistake is notable in view of his latter comments on education for histo[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (345)[...]y Inventory and Prospect.
Although nominally head of a committee, (Hartshome apparently advised Clark[...]al geography as "the study the past circumstances of, or of changes in the
phenomena of concern to geography" (1954173). Later he makes e[...]ross section approach
was basically a description of a society and landscape at a particular point in[...]ral processes and landscapes
(1954:85).

The fear of history seems to have infected Clark who argues f[...]historical
geographers in "the physical branches of geography"; "anthropology and archaeology",
"reading the records of the past" and the "history of geography" but not in the theory and
methods of history itself (1954:93-95).7 It is this wariness of history (and suspicion of
anyone too close to it) that H.C. Darby noted when discussing American historical
geography and the work of James (1929) and Whittlesey (1929) on understandi[...]might easily lead to a full-scale reconstruction of some past geography”.

According to one's point of view, one might regard that as falling down the s[...]ts (Darby 1954:651).

The most explicit statement of what became characterised as the “Berkeley scho[...]ural” geography was defined as the application of the idea of culture to
geographic problems (Wagner and Mikesell 1962). The main focus of cultural geography
seemed to be the distribution of culture traits and the definition of cultural areas in time
(Wagner and Mikesell 19625[...]ndscape was defined as ‘the geographic
content of a determined area or geographic complex of a certain type, in which the
choices made and changes worked by members of some cultural community are
manifested” (Wagner[...]en as being a concrete and characteristic product of the
complicated interplay between a given human community and a particular set of natural

7 However see Earle 1992 for a more positive assessment of Andrew Clark's contribution to "history an[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (346)[...]ng typical for most geographers, that is plotting of
distributions and densities of features, comparisons between regions, charting of
movements, zonation and so on.

All the geographi[...]Cultural history is seen as addressing four kinds of facts; the origin of
cultural features; the routes of their dissemination; the distribution of cultural areas; and
the character of former cultural landscapes (Wagner and Mikesell 1962: 1 5). The history
of cultural landscapes involves reconstruction and d[...]as
studying the processes that link the sequences of events described in the cultural history.
These p[...]defined after careful and systematic description of specific cultural
landscapes which then proceeds[...]ikesell
1962:19-22).

In many ways the weak point of this approach was the geographers use of the term
culture (Brookfield 1964), a point reco[...]fic weakness as being in the
uncritical adoption of the “superorganic” nature of culture, as propounded by the
anthropologist Kroe[...]ley School” and Sauer.
The superorganic concept of culture saw culture as an entity above the indivi[...]son acts or is constrained according to
the level of culture. Culture is not created by humans or hist[...]uncan 1980:182-184; Jackson 1989218). Explanation of past or current
landscapes was seen as being extr[...]ly Denis Cosgrove and Peter
Jackson) were accused of “self-serving debunking of traditional cultural geography” by
Price and Lewis (19933) who carried out a spirited defence of Sauer and the Berkeley
school. They argued that Duncan’s characterisation of Kroeber’s work was inaccurate
and that the conc[...]auer and held only by a “minority
contingent” of the Berkeley School (Price and Lewis 199329-11). Irrespective of the
rights and wrongs of the situation Price and Lewis do admit that the concept of culture is
poorly developed in the older forms of Berkeley geography (199319, 11). Despite Price
and Lewis’s defence and the apparent modification of their views by Wagner (1994) and
Mikesell (1967)[...]tural geography approach is the
conceptualisation of culture which leads to a lack of explanatory power in their
arguments.

9 W[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (347)BRITISH DEVELOPMENTS

Patrick Bryan in "Man’s adaptation of Nature: Studies of the Cultural Landscape " ( 1932)
attempted to formulate a scientific geography based on the concept of human
relationships with the physical environment (19332v, 10-11). The physical form of this
relationship is the cultural landscape. This approach is not unlike the objectives of Sauer
(who is not cited) and Bryan's work seems t[...]lined in his Morphology paper.

The physical form of the relationship between humans and the environme[...]dified by humans);

"is the objective expression of the relationship between human activities and
nat[...]ories. It possesses movable
forms as in the cases of men and vehicles. It has activity expressed in the
operations of seeding and harvesting, manufacturing processes and the
movement of vehicles. Lastly, it has the results of these activities in the forms
of crops, manufactured products, the transportation of goods and people, the
production of health, good government and amusement" (Bryan 195[...]rpinning the cultural landscape is Byran’s view of culture as based on the
satisfaction of a series of basic human needs and desires. These cause humans[...]ction on the natural environment and the response of the natural environment in
return creates the cul[...]namic and are transformed over time as the nature of human activity
changes (1933:60-62).

The thrust of Bryan’s book is not to question these assumptions or to justify the nature of
the cultural landscape as an "objective expression" but to develop approaches to the
analysis of the cultural landscape. Overall Bryan's study reads as a mechanistic approach
to the dynamics of human life for example "the village of Helidon in Northamptonshire
may be described in terms of the cultural landscape as the concrete or objective
expression of man's adaptation of nature in an effect to satisfy the desire for she[...]7).

"Man" in particular seems a very static part of Bryan's world apart from basic desires.
There is nothing of humans in this analysis. This point is well made[...]things. "The human factor is more than the works of man. It includes ideologies
as well as technologi[...]an's work under the heading "Sociological aspects of Geography " which no doubt
accounts for the use of the word "ideology" which is notably absen[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (348)[...]present the cultural
landscape as the end result of some natural inevitable process rather than as created by a
wide variety of forces. The classification is static but the sub[...]). Crowe points out that this avoids the dynamics of a
region and also notes that much of what is significant in understanding the dynamics of a
landscape is not open to the eye (1938:11).

Dickinson (1939) responded to Crowe’s criticism of the morphological approach with a
restatement of the morphological approach to cultural landscapes. He reviewed earlier
work particularly that of Schluter, Passarge, Brunhes and Sauer and stated his own views.
Cultural landscapes are man's transformation of the natural landscape. Landscape is
restricted to the fixed features in the composition of terrestrial areas. The elements of the
landscape are areal facts and are to be studi[...]from the other disciplines
(1939:5-6). The study of cultural landscapes is concerned with the process of human
activity in time and area and therefore Dic[...]The Crowe/Dickinson debate really restated much of what had been written earlier and
both authors se[...]nson and went on to argue for the essential unity of the study of space and time and
that understanding of the features of a landscape is partially dependent on understanding
of "cultural phenomena which are not represented in[...](1939:221). He
further notes that the likelihood of relic features occurring in a landscape and argues that
as the whole history of a landscape cannot be studied (due to the large scope of the work
involved) the fundamental work should be[...]phenomena,
and these two classes are not capable of explanation in the same terms, or within the
same system. Moreover, neither is capable of explanation of phenomena directly
observable in the landscape" ([...]le geomorphic
processes can be explained in terms of special physical laws the cultural landscape can be
understood only in terms of social processes (1939:222-223). Secondly he argu[...]limitations on geographic study by the exclusion of anything not visible on
the landscape. This is because cultural landscapes are part of the broader area of the
social conditions of the communities occupying an area (19392223).

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (349)[...]kins and the English Landscape

A separate strand of British landscape studies, more historical geogra[...]graphy, began in the Depression era with the work of the geographer H.C. Darby and
is drawn on and con[...]Beresford. They

wrote on the origins and nature of past English landscapes at a local and broad leve[...]liams 1989). Darby is known for four main
aspects of his work. Firstly, his detailed work on the draining of the English Fens.
Secondly, for his work on reconstructing the Doomsday geography of England. Thirdly
his editing of the historical geography of England and finally, his writings on history and[...]he saw very much
as a humanised one, the concept of cultural landscapes is not really used as an anal[...]anised his writing on landscapes in a
combination of two approaches.

The first, was the reconstruction of past geographies. Darby undertook this using the[...]the cross section, which involved taking a period of time and examining
the geography of the country or region (following the example of Macaulay's notorious
third chapter). This method was essentially used in An Historical Geography of England,
which Darby conceived and edited. The di[...]3: 644; 1960:147-148). There was also the
problem of differential rates of change in landscape elements thus as Darby puts i[...]alternative approach was to concentrate on a part of the landscape and write the
narrative history of that theme emphasising change. This approach is really the study of
cultural landscapes and their change. Darby's spe[...]d as The Medieval Fenland
(1956) and The Draining of the Fens (1974). He also wrote an overview articl[...]through time.

Darby recognised that the approach of examining one theme might be criticised on[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (350)[...]onest mind", was that such studies

may stray out of the field of geography. Darby dismissed such criticisms as unn[...]lightly modified in The New Historical Geography of England.
In taking this approach Darby followed the example of Jan Broek’s the Santa Clara
Valley'2 which combined four cross-sections with three studies of the social and

economic forces that led to the c[...]Darby took a very pragmatic approach to the study of the landscape through historical
geography realising that a knowledge of history and geography was essential for such a
pr[...]us and our past generations will be the
prisoners of their own cultural and intellectual world” (198[...]little concern about straying into the
territory of geography or using archaeological evidence. In 1955 Hoskins’ classic Making
of the English Landscape was published. In it Hoskin[...]ain “the manner in
which the various landscapes of this country came to assume the shape and appeara[...]a symphony that can be enjoyed purely as a piece of music
or in depth once the underlying structure a[...]ook
is, then, an attempt to study the development of the English landscape much as though it
were a piece of music, or a series of compositions of varying magnitude, in order that we
may understan[...]s’ ability to involve the reader in the process of discovery of this logic that
really makes an impact. Constantly we are reminded, by way of detailed interpretation or
reading, that the past[...]reader to agree
with the interpretation and think of other places with similar evidence. Methodologica[...]ysical evidence as well as the
documentary. "Some of the best documentary local histories betray not t[...]t sign
that the author has looked over the hedges of his chosen place" (l959:3). In practice
Hoskins p[...]cumentary as examples. In

'2 Brock was a student of Sauer.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (351)370

discussing the Anglo-Saxon field system instead of some ancient texts being cited the
reader is presented with an array of photographs and plans that make his point;

By ta[...]ten record into what he clearly saw as a new form of history which incorporated
physical evidence foun[...]exemplified by
Darby’s work as well as studies of culture traits and settlements. Hoskins interest[...]places him in the archaeological sphere as a form of rudimentary historical
archaeologist. Historian, archaeologist, geographer. Hoskins displays the skills of all
these disciplines and presents a narrative interpretation of how the landscape was made.

In so far as Hoskins[...]to Darby as well as the
romantic movement. Traces of Hoskin’s nostalgic view of the English rural landscape are
seen in works as diverse as Tolkien’s Lord of the Rings, where the English landscape
with its s[...]and its sturdy Hobbitary and Awdrey’s
depiction of the island of Sodor as a refuge from modern technology. This nostalgic view
of the past has recently been criticised by Bender (1993) mainly because of its
appropriation by the “Heritage Industry”[...]ymond Williams.

Meinig has commented on the lack of impact The Making of the English landscape had
initially (1979: 199, 2[...]ious work it is frequently seen as the beginnings of
serious consideration of cultural landscapes (e.g. Russell 1988211). This[...]he
case, rather Hoskins work marks the beginnings of concern for the conservation and
preservation of cultural landscapes. This is because unlike Darby[...]rve cultural landscapes rather than the beginning of cultural landscape
studies.

Taking a similar lin[...]esford, an economic historian with a
similar lack of self-consciousness about wandering into other dis[...]combined documentary research with an examination of
landscape and physical evidence. This lead to two notable books Lost villages of England
and History on the Ground which with thei[...]in 1961 Beresford particularly emphasised the use of
physical evidence to interpret or illustrate the[...]en treated in a similar manner as being the start of some

concern for historical landscapes ev[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (352)[...]s refreshing and his writing lucid, the direction of research is largely one way
from the historical d[...]his would have been seen by Beresford as the role of
archaeology.

With the work of Darby, Hoskins and Beresford there is a clear tradition of the
integration of the documentary with the landscape in studying the past. This is seen by all
of these writers as natural rather than something th[...]eir published work shows, was more in the writing of good
history than in discussing their methodologi[...]he 19605 there were two approaches to the concept of landscape in geography. The
cultural geographers,[...]inly American, were oriented towards the approach of
Sauer and the analysis of the cultural landscape through the tracing of culture traits
although they were split over the use of history with some merely wanting to describe
land[...]another landscape.

The second approach was that of the British geographers (and local historians) which
seems to have been more concerned with methods of data presentation rather than with
any theory of history. Their approach to the landscape was to s[...]trating on a cross-section
in time or the tracing of a theme (such as draining the fens) through time.[...]e landscape they saw was substantially the result of human activity.

The so—called paradigm shift of the “New Geography” occurred in the 19605 and is
generally associated with the locational geography of Haggett, Chorley and others
(Chorley and Haggett[...]eography" took three new directions; the espousal of a scientific method based on
logical positivism,[...]thods and models for analysis and the
development of new quantitative methods typically based on the greater access to
computers.

For the purposes of this review the question is how did the "New Geography" affect the
concept of cultural landscapes and related approaches? The answer is complex. Firstly,
the idea of landscapes as being cultural did not change. Howe[...]rical
geography) and, secondly, the understanding of the meaning and content of cultural
landscapes. It should be noted however, that the effects of this revolution were not felt

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (353)universally through the discipline of geography and many geographers continued
undertak[...]tical approach was initially towards the adoption of a positivist
approach to science (Gregory 1978).[...]tage in scientific investigation was the testing of theories and generalisations
against facts. Baker[...]es, those that Baker mentioned were the
keystones of Darby’s approach: cross-sections, vertical them[...]ing based on behavioural approaches. The sub-text of Baker’s article is that the

reconstruction of past geographies should be replaced by an explanation of change in
historical geography.

Hugh Prince’s methodological article Real Imagined and abstract worlds of the past
(1971, see also 1969) applied the methods of the new geography to historical geography
in an attempt to enlarge the scope of the field. He outlined three main vistas for historical
geographic inquiry. The first approach, that of studying the “real” world of past features
and events “that actually existed[...]empting to place the information into the context of ideas about the world at the time to
recreate pas[...]in a slightly hermeneutic way) the abstract world of
models and quantitative relationships is brought[...]n why
a particular phenomena occurred. Under each of these topics are sub-topics and under
them more topics leading in all to 45 different areas of historical geographic inquiry all
relating in som[...]is generally considered however, that the impact of the "New Geography" was much
less in the area of historical geography and thus concepts of cultural landscapes than in
other areas. Writing[...]aker considered that the changes in other fields of
geography had only just begun to be felt in histo[...]the “New Geography” represented a renovation of the previous geography in
its tacit allegiance to the methods of the natural sciences and in the role of the scientist
(1978:21). Conzen writing with an emphasis on the American geographers noted the
introduction of quantitative analysis and model building and a br[...]opposition” but he also noted that the promise
of early studies was often not met (1994:66-70).

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (354)[...]y” did not have a notable effect on the concept of cultural
landscapes its main benefit was in firstly killing off the narrow Hartshome view of
geography and opened up the field to a new range of ideas. Secondly a whole new suite
of techniques were presented for analysing the landscape. Whatever one might think of
the “New Geography” these were lasting legacies to the study of the landscape

Many cultural landscapes

By the e[...]egun to turn leaving behind a flotsam and
jetsam of models and theories. In its place emerges a plurality of approaches to
landscapes termed “humanistic geo[...]oppose the
mechanical and uncritical application of the methods of the natural sciences to human
geographic issues ([...]:302-304 for a discussion) and by an exploration of
Marxist interpretations particularly through the work of David Harvey (Lagopoulos &
Boklund-Lagopoulos 1992). There was also the continuing of the traditional
Darby/Hoskins approach as exempli[...]ral landscapes
but more with the overall question of the aims of human geography. Their effect however
was more in[...]at they resulted in major changes in the practice of geography,
which required the approach to, and the concept of, cultural landscapes had to change.
Baker in a re[...]ansformed by man rather than upon man
as an agent of landscape change, upon artefacts rather than upon[...]processes” (1991:300).
Baker viewed the concern of historical geography as being “the process unde[...]ple and place (1991:300-301).

It was the merging of period and place that Baker saw as being exemplified in the edited
volume of papers The Interpretation of the Ordinary Landscape (Meinig 1979). This
collection of papers was aimed at exhibiting the vitality of the topic “landscape” and
current thought on[...]context. Meinig in his introduction sets the
tone of the articles by defining the field “la[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (355)[...]ature, although it is an intricate interrningling of physical, biological
and cultural features.ls Lan[...]not scenery as scenery is a continuous
selection of certain views. Landscape although all around us is not environment as
environment is an inherent property of every living thing but landscape is less inclusiv[...]is not place.
Meinig argued that this is because of the experiential nature of place, landscape is a
continuous surface not a point focus locality or defined area. Landscape is a portion of
the earth’s surface, but not identical with reg[...]dy but also
argued that landscape study is a form of social history that seeks to understand the routine
lives of ordinary people and studied as a history. “Ever[...]al history, methodologically defining the making
of the landscape from the past to the present” (19[...]and apply contemporary social theory to the study of landscape.

On a more general level in the “Beh[...]; as wealth; as an
ideology; as a physical record of the past; as a place and as an aesthetic (197%).[...]and the reader.

In the contribution “Biography of the Landscape ”, Samuels’ posed the question[...]t reference to the who behind the
image and facts of landscape (1979:52-53). Samuels then traced a history of “the war
against the self” and outlines a program for the development of a biography of landscape.
He argued against the view that the sciences have shown the limits of the individual’s
actions, human choice, free wi[...]ably constrained and would also
leave explanation ofof which
individuals and groups mould their environm[...](1979263). Seen this way the scientific evidence of limitations on an
individual’s action are visib[...]s particularity and
partiality.”

The biography of the landscape has as its central concept the study of the role of the
individual: both key individuals, and thousands of lesser figures, in their context - the

'[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (356)375

world of the authored landscapes. For Samuels the main met[...]o
account for the relationships between the world of imagined landscapes and the world of
lived-in landscapes, both require an author but are different products of authorship. This
is resolved by examining landscapes of impression (ie the thoughts of people about

landscapes which study is related to geosophy, the study of past geographical thought)
and landscapes of expression.

While Samuel's approach is of great interest the most obvious problem that emer[...]actually does this in practice. The issue is one of identifying key individuals and
their role as wel[...]rmation about
themselves, not necessarily because of their role in creating the landscape. The result may
be a phenomenologically correct version of Samuel Smiles’ Lives of the Engineers.
Samuels touches on this point by noting that in some cases a biography of landscape is
not always feasible because of a limit of concrete data concerning the millions of authors
(1979281). This seems to imply that we ha[...]ion is how one makes a judgement about the weight of

the non-key individuals contribution, here some form ofof axioms.
Although they may seem somewhat trite, th[...]“read” the landscape and hence the popularity of Lewis’s contribution (1979). What is
missing in[...]how one proceeds from the recognition and
reading of the cultural landscape to a depth of understanding that is obvious in the
writings of the “landscape heroes” Lewis celebrates (ie S[...]etc.). In a more recent article Lewis covers some of the same ground but spends

some time reviewing the stage of research on cultural landscapes with little discussion of
what a landscape is (1983).

In reviewing the works of the humanist school, Cosgrove argues that the met[...]useful, ultimately fail to explain the phenomena of place and
landscape as they relate to human consc[...]h are idealist terms and preclude the possibility of
understanding the reasons behind things (1978270). Cosgrove argues for a merging of
Marxist and humanist approaches, linking concepts of individual and social
consciousness linked to the material world (1978:70-71). A similar criticism of
humanistic geography was made by Kobayashi who argued that the issue of how to
connect the world of individual experience with the realm of social, political and material
reality is largely[...]1989) suggestion for
utilising Sartre’s concept of dialectical reason as a way of overcoming this problem

seems not to have[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (357)Post-whatever and different readings of the landscape

By the mid 19805 Rowntree (1988),[...]n the discourse. “Recent activity on
both sides of the Atlantic conveys the notion that a “new”[...]1988) argued
that in attempting to infuse a sense of human agency to morphological and land use
studies the revitalised concept of the cultural landscape would be useful. Ley, in what
could only be considered a heady burst of enthusiasm, argues that Lewis (1985) has
reopened the 1ssue of geographic description, and quickly argues for the concept of “thick
description” (after Geertz) as a way t[...]s landscapes as being “the
active constructions of social groups, with all the flux, dynamism, disc[...]view implies” (1988:99). In discussing the work of Gee1tz, the
original thick describer, Ley points to Geertz’s use of the concept of Bali as a theatre
state which acts to organise an[...]aluation). Ley considers that the identification of the urban landscape as text

would serve a similar purpose for geography (1988:100) and points to a number of recent
studies along those lines.

In (Re)reading the Landscape (one of the studies referred to by Ley) Duncan and Duncan
approach the “riddle of the landscape through the medium of literary theory and social
theory” arguing that the answer lies at the intersection of the two where each supplies the
deficiencies of the other (1988. 117). Literary theory provides geographers with a way of
examining the text-like qualities of landscapes and to see them as transformations of
ideologies.l9 Literary theory also provides theories of reading and authorship, which can
be used to expl[...]e that literary theory often ignores the question of social
organisation, they adopt the notion of textual communities that cluster around a shared
reading of a text put forward by Stock in 1983 (as cited by[...]s was a complex reference to the then recent fall of the Berlin wall, the “civil war” in cultural[...]he Leonard
Cohen song popular at that time. Cohen of course was a Canadian.

'8 Which In fact Lewis ne[...]early reliance on literary theory in his analysis of material
culture. Is this because of him not being a geographer or his strong associations with the cultural geography
of Kniffen, which Duncan opposed?

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (358)377

Thus landscapes are seen as the product of textualised behaviour that defines how they
are[...]diating influence shaping
behaviour in the image of the text. The Duncan’s illustrate their point with a series of
examples of the transformation of text into landscape. There are two types of coexisting
transformations. One where the actual[...]A pertinent example they give is the development of the Vancouver suburb
Shaughnessy as a focused transformation of Nineteenth Century architectural texts
(1988:121-[...]he authors or readers are only vaguely or unaware of the textual
basis of the landscape. At Shaughnessy this was seen as a notion of genteel “picturesque
country life” within the city (Duncan and Duncan 19881121).

The texts of course are seen as ideological documents which support sets of ideas and
values about the way society is or shou[...]ed. This is often translated, through
the process of naturalisation, into “the way things are” (naturally). Landscape can be seen
as the transformation of these ideologies into physical form. The landscape can then be
seen as part of this naturalising process as evidence of how society should or must be
organised although they do not of necessity act in this way all the time. Interpret[...]and denaturalisation is seen as an important task of the academic. “Because landscapes
are one of the most persuasive, taken-for-granted texts about social organisation,

denaturalisation is one of the most important tasks we can perform” (Dunca[...]Text (1990) which, apart from its
investigations of Kandyan Kingdom, aimed to demonstrate a methodology for the
implementation of the ideas expressed earlier (in Duncan and Duncan 1988). Beginning
with the by now familiar critique of traditional studies of cultural landscapes as being in
essence superfic[...]990:15-17). Landscape as “an ordered assemblage of objects, a text,
acts as a signifying system thro[...]. Duncan suggests that to understand this quality of landscape
two questions need to be addressed; wha[...]takes place (1990217). There is also the question of textuality and
intertextuality.

In considering what is signified, Duncan suggests that an examination of local people’s
accounts of the nature of landscape through a hermeneutic process is useful. Secondly an
examination of outsider’s accounts of the landscape and the discourse between this
acco[...]Finally there is the geographers interpretations of the
system of signification underlying the landscape (1990: 1 7-19). Duncan defends the
outsiders view - that of the academic, as useful in determining unintended,
unacknowledged conditions of action but places it in the context of a hermeneutic rather
than scientific mode of analysis (1990218).

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (359)[...]in which signification takes place, the rhetoric of the
landscape, Duncan points to two lines of inquiry (while acknowledging that there may be
more). The first is the impact of objectification of the landscape. By this I think Duncan
means that[...]ery-day the landscape in fact performs a function
of masking its history, ideology, role in society and so on (Duncan 1990: 19). One can
perhaps think of a wilderness area where its “untouched nature” serves to mask for
example the history of Aboriginal occupation and Aboriginal disposition.[...]element in the rhetoric are the tropes (figures of speech) which allow the landscape to act
as a sig[...]recurrent narrative

structure and gives examples of these drawing on his work in Kandy (Duncan 1990:19-
22).

Duncan argues that concepts of textuality and intertexuality are also useful. Textuality
concerns the production and interpretation of text. Duncan notes that the memory and
interpretation of the past is an important political resource. Inte[...]y to Duncan’s, Cosgrove, in Myth and the Stones of Venice (1982), traces
the Venetian myth of Venice in the landscape of the city of Venice. “In the initiatives of
Sixteenth Century we may read the myth of Venice in its townscape... Constitutional
balance[...]and
architecture” (1982:151). This inscription of myth was done through reference to an
iconography[...]rated historical legends and humanist conceptions of the ideal
organisation of creation” (1982:153) which were part of the Venetian conception of their
city. Nineteenth Century English visitors t[...]he Venetian myth and related it to a
mythical set of moral and social conditions as a response and critique of the social ills of
Victorian England. In this study we see a clear example of the reading and rereading of
social and mythological values in the landscape a[...]ic Landscape (1984) is
concerned with the concept of landscape and how it is (or was?) created and dev[...]tory Cosgrove focuses on the material
foundations of the landscape idea, which he suggests is the theme of the human use of
earth. Cosgrove adopts a cultural materialist position that the concept of landscape cannot
be discussed outside the context of material practice (19842). In focusing on the history
of the cultural production of landscape idea Cosgrove is far from Sauer’s original
discussion on cultural landscapes and the sort of studies Sauer envisaged. Yet as
Cosgrove wants to ground his discussion in the material practice of landscape he uses the
same theme of human use of the earth, the relationships between socie[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (360)[...]notes the traditional geographer’s definition of landscape as an area of the
surface of the earth with a visual and functional arrangement of human and natural
phenomena and outlines the method of scientific study, typically though morphology, of
landscapes. He notes that this approach involves the “rigorous exclusion of subjectivity in
the interest of scientific aims (1984: 16). Landscape however ha[...]in
particular Cosgrove focuses on the definition of landscape as “the area subtended to the
eye and vision ofof landscape containing both subjective and objectiv[...]y really deal with the objective or surface
layer of meanings (1984:17-18).

A second ambiguity lies between the personal experience of landscape and the social
experience. For an individual viewing a landscape (whether represented in some form of
the real world) there is an element of control and response that is personal. However fo[...]vely produced, experienced and maintained as part of a
social group. The difficulty in the scientifi[...]in dealing with the insiders

experience for use of a rigorous scientific approach risks denying the integrity of the
insiders experience (Cosgrove 1984:18-19).

The origins of these ambiguities lie in the artistic use of landscape, a concept which was
taken over by geographers. In discussing the history of the artistic landscape, Cosgrove
points to the discovery of perspective as the origin of realist landscape painting.
Perspective was regarded as the truth itself “an objective property of space” (1984:21-
22). It was a way of controlling space and objects directing them back[...]e makes the point repeatedly that the conventions of the landscape painting
emerge “as conventions that reinforce ideas of individualism, subjective control over an

objective environment and separation of personal experience over a collective historical[...]en incorporated into the
geographers construction of landscape. This occurred through the visual foundation of the
landscape concept (1984:28-31). A landscapes[...]lies deeply rooted in
the artistic landscape way of seeing. The difficulty for scientific approache[...]is that “science demands structured explanation of the forms and events it observes, and
the understanding and elucidation of processes” (1984232). Yet the underlying ideology
of landscape as a static visual model formally denie[...]ing
methodological gymnastics” (such as the use of cross-sections) to attempt explanation or

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (361)380

the abandonment of the overview of landscape to concentrate on social process that y[...]is not suitable for investigating all the levels of meaning in the
landscape, Cosgrove then comments on the humanistic perspective. It is the affective
meaning of landscape that has interested the humanistic geog[...]But ultimately for Cosgrove, despite the
insights of the humanist geographers, neither the scientific[...]takes the same theme (and
is virtually a synopsis of the book) Cosgrove makes explicit that the morpho[...]h result in patterns but not to any understanding of process. This is because “one of
the consistent purposes of landscape painting has been to present an image of order and
proportional control, to suppress evidence of tension and conflict between social groups
and w[...]phers have adopted the landscape concept as a way of moving
beyond scientism, the concept itself share[...]eeds to be investigated. Again however the method of investigation or ways of
getting beyond this problem are not put forward.

In a major statement of methods, Geography is everywhere, (1989) Cosgrove[...]graphy (1989: 122). Calling for
a stronger theory of culture in the “new cultural geography” (1989[...]ngs landscape and culture together in the concept of the symbol. “To understand the
expressions written by a culture into its landscape we require a knowledge of the
language employed: the symbols and their mean[...]landscape begin with a close and detailed
reading of the text (ie the landscape) through “fieldwork[...]does not reject the traditional tools and skills of the
geographer and in this is in agreement with S[...]s
W.G. Hoskins who also emphasised the importance of field work. 0 Cosgrove noted that
such a process[...]ted
upon and honestly acknowledged in the writing of our geography” (19892126). However
there is als[...]nscious distortion. Geographers use a broad range of evidence
and, as Cosgrove notes, each has its str[...]knesses, which require the
geographer to be aware of their techniques if the evidence is to be handled proficiently.

2° A description of a fieldwork program is in Cosgrove and Da[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (362)[...]allow the geographer to get “under the skin” of the landscape and yet
wrenching the landscape out of its context of space and time (1989:127). Finally the

interpretation of the landscape is re-presented through the geographers language of
symbols and words.

The final work of Cosgrove to be discussed is his book The Palladia[...]k comes together in a geographical interpretation of a
region of northern Italy. Without going into the fascinating detail of Cosgrove’s study we
will consider his approach to the issue of landscape. After a brief discussion the failings
of the old cultural geography are summarised as a lack of theoretical reflection; its
assumption of uniformity within a culture; and a virtual exclus[...]visible material forms.

Drawing on a broad range of theoretical literature in the humanities and soci[...]ices are signification. Having accepted the idea of culture as signification then come
the questions of interpretation. Cosgrove sees these as involving[...]ic circle that never reaches “the sunlit slopes of absolute scientific truth”
(199226). Having le[...]ant and contingent circumstances in which a group of
people live their lives and give them meaning”[...]eople are focussed on, “the conflicting nature of cultural signification becomes
unavoidably appar[...]not negate the traditional geographic techniques of field
and map study but the new orientations, which see landscapes as “signifiers of the culture
of those who made them” (1992z8), changes the questions asked of the evidence and
indeed the evidence itself. Simi[...]nalysing hydrology Cosgrove comments the
concepts of systems theory are directly applicable but when considering the questions of
the way humans give meaning to the relations betw[...]the old geographical writings.

The final member of the new cultural geographers is Peter Jackson who’s book Maps of
Meaning (1989) is more a summary ofof culture and to examine some ways it might be applied to
geography (19891171). Part of the work’s appeal is its concise and str[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (363)[...]are about.

Beginning with the familiar critique of Sauer and the Berkeley Schoolzl and of the
humanistic geography (198921-23), Jackson moves to an elaboration of cultural studies
through a discussion of the work of Raymond Williams. Characterising William’s work
as dealing with the central question of whether a materialist analysis of culture can be
constructed that doesn’t become[...]materialist as it emphasises that cultural
forms of all kinds are the result of specific processes of production. Jackson then surveys
the variety in the field of cultural studies. Turning to cultural landscapes[...]consistently rejected a unitary and elitist view of culture. It has focused
instead on the plurality of cultural forms through which dominant meanings ar[...]ographers must be prepared to
examine a plurality of landscapes. Jackson briefly discusses work in th[...]ork by Ley and Cosgrove.

Apart from the critique of Price and Lewis (1993) there have been two major[...]ltural geography. Firstly Demeritt in an overview of the metaphors used in the
new cultural geography[...]historians have been arguing for a dualistic view of nature, nature exists
apart from our understanding of it, cultural geographers have questioned the same[...]landscape. Cultural geographers took up metaphors of cultural
production to turn attention to the social construction of meaning which in turn allowed
them to critique the “naturalised” conception of landscape. However environmental
historians Demerit argues “are committed to representing the agency of nature as
autonomous from cultural ways of understanding it” (1994: 164). Demeritt basically sees
no hope of reconciling the two positions and suggests that n[...]bandoned “we can get on with the
important work of understanding how the idea of culture functions in society”
(19952110). Mitch[...]lished. Duncan (1995) points to the establishment of the journal Ecumene as
a positive sign, no wonder[...]Cosgrove are its editors! However the influence of
new cultural geography seems limited in America and in the field of historical geography.

2‘ By now becomin[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (364)[...]ewrite Wagners
and Mikesell classic text in light of the critique of their view of culture (which they both
recant in this volume).[...]d as Re-reading Cultural Geography
as a statement of cultural geography will be as convenient a target[...]n the British literature (1994:16-17). While some of the readings
are certainly in the terrain of new cultural geography most are not. In commenting on the
text Duncan notes the absence of some “fine relevant British writing’ (199514[...]cal geography despite the enthusiastic discussion of ideology and landscape by
Baker (1992) and a similar discussion by Conzen (1990) the overview of historical
geography in the USA by Conzen (1993) notes only a seepage of post-modem ideas into
historical geography (1993188). Butlin’s similar overview of historical geography focuses
on authors such as G[...]ew cultural geography is discussed
in the chapter of landscapes as merely broadening the traditional a[...]between geography and history
points to a failure of historical geographers to come to grips with current notions of
history claiming that historical geography is using an outmoded paradigm of history “the
natural history approach” (19972222). While one might wish to disagree with aspects of
Guelke’s analysis, his comments on the differing uses of history are important in
understanding why cultur[...]l geography seems absurd especially when the
work of cultural geographers such as Cosgrove and Duncan,[...]NCLUSIONS

It is perhaps a testimony to the power of the landscape concept that at the end of this
review there is still even more literature that could be examined. The concept of cultural
landscapes has proven to be of long lasting usefulness in helping researchers un[...]nt ever left a
“natural” landscape.

The work of Carl Sauer is important in formulating a concept of cultural landscapes.
Sauer’s morphological appr[...]d largely is carried on by
the current generation of cultural geographers. Sauer’s work was r[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (365)384

conceptualisation of culture in the work of the cultural geographers have been identified
and conceded. A third generation school of cultural geography has emerged in the USA
aiming[...]roach to cultural landscapes emerged in the works of Darby, Hoskins
and Beresford which integrated landscape and documentary evidence in a description of
the cultural landscapes. Although the work of Darby, Hoskins and Beresford was not
unified eno[...]lanatory power was limited by their understanding of

culture although they obviously had a broader view of why certain landscapes occurred
when they did.

I[...]ent approach to the landscape emerged in the work of the New
Cultural Geographers. They rejected the view of culture which is typified as being used
by Sauer[...]Landscapes are seen as
social constructs or a way of seeing (Jackson 1989: 1 80-1 81).

Despite the rejection of old cultural geography Cosgrove explicitly points to the use of
traditional techniques of fieldwork and mapping as ways to closely read the landscape.
The difference lies in the questions asked of the landscape and the evidence used to
understand the landscape.

Landscapes have layers of meaning that can be reached by a variety of techniques, for
Duncan it is the metaphor of reading the landscape as text (1990). For Cosgrove it is a
careful contextual analysis (1989) and the use of the theatrical metaphor (Cosgrove and
Daniel 1989[...]weaknesses but none is seen as the preferred way of undertaking analysis.

It is of interest that the practical examples of studies seem limited to one well defined
period of time and area. For Cosgrove it is Sixteenth Centu[...]ly as they
claim to have overcome the limitations of the previous methods of dealing with change
over time.

Currently there s[...]— the new cultural geography pushing
this view of landscape. This is balanced by an American school of a renovated “old”
cultural geography, which i[...]. Central to the
work in each form is the concept of cultural landscapes. The concept has survived but the
questions asked of the landscape have diversified and become[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (366)APPENDIX TWO: RESPECTABILITY AND
THE CULT OF DOMESTICITY
Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (367)386

Respectability was the underpinning of the squatter’s status; it is what separated them
from the "skulkers" and others who perhaps met some of the criteria to be squatters.Z3
Respectability is a short hand word for a system of social values held during the period
under discus[...]ry defines respectable as “worthy or deserving of respect by reason of
some inherent quality or qualities” or alternatively “of good or fair social standing and
having the moral[...]is
defined as “the state quality or condition of being respectable in point of character or
social standing”.

Respectability must be seen in the context of what the particular qualities of character or
social standing were at any particul[...]ry between social groups at any one time and
also of course over time as well. The point being that th[...]these “inherent qualities” during the period of squatting? There has been
clear agreement by historians that there is a distinct set of “Victorian values” that relate in
a large way[...]tlined. 4 This leads to a rather ill defined set of values, often talked
about by historians but rare[...]dy outlined what he termed the Victorian “Frame of Mind” which remains
the only attempt to establi[...]an values were. Asa Briggs notes ‘the key
words of the times were thought, work and progress’ (196321). Later Briggs stressed that
the concept of work was at the very core of Victorian values, “not just work in the
factory[...]9711135). Best, in his discussion on social order of

23 Linda Young uses the terms “gentility” and “genteel" referring to the qualities of both breeding and birth
that are of course part of respectability. I have chosen to use respectabili[...]king men.

2" This seems to be due to the absence of a good history of the middle class. If Victorian society is seen as[...]en the spheres.

25 For all the recent discussion of Victorian values in the British literature you wo[...]990, Walvin [987) have been focused on a critique of Mrs Thatcher’s conception of Victorian
values. Characteristically her statement of what Victorian values are, is much more concrete that those of
the historians.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (368)387

mid-Victorian Britain sees the values of deference and social hierarchy as vertically
integrating society while concepts or values of respectability and independence were seen
as creating divisions across levels of society. The value of independence was seen as
being reliant on yoursel[...]a communist state (1) and encompassed the values of both being a
good person and a pillar of society (19712260).

Young notes that Evangelisti[...]were transformed or secularised into the
concept of respectability a standard held it seems in common[...]nsus. They included sobriety, thrift, cleanliness of person and tidiness ofof seriousness and
earnestness that if pushed too far could result in the negation of these virtues so that
ideals held could be seen a[...]drawing, like Houghton, on the literary depiction of gentlemen and gentry
identified four types of gentlemen each with their own set of values, the officer and
gentleman; the scholar an[...]an
sportsman (1982: 13). Mason traces the history of the meanings of the concept of the
“gentleman” from the time of Chaucer to the plucky death of Captain Oates in 1913.
Mason points out that the concept of the gentleman and the values that went with it we[...]t rather as a sea anemone will adopt a
new source of food and adapt its digestive system to deal with it ” (1982: 12).

One of the conditions of respectability for the upper and in particular the emerging
middle class was conformance to the “cult of domesticity”, a fundamental ideal of the
Victorian age. The cult of domesticity is short hand for the convergence of a number of
Victorian values and their incorporation in a whole way of life. Domesticity was one of
the core aspects of life in the Victorian era and to be considered re[...]tions and networks that could challenge
the world of rank and land. For many of the middle class it was the challenge based on
religious grounds where the religious condition of the individual was seen as the mark of
gentility, or respectability (1987273).

The Evan[...]sponse to the social dislocation and rapid change of the period from 1770
onwards. “Religious belief[...]77). The first Anglican Evangelists
were members of the Church of England who believed in reforming the church and

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (369)[...]nnah Moore. The Clapham set were from backgrounds of the
middle class or upper class who were faced wi[...]elical struggle over anti-slavery and over reform of manners
and morals, a new vision of the nation, of political power and of family life was formed”
(Hall 1979215). In refo[...]morality Evangelism aimed to provide a new model
of life that replaced licentiousness and immorality[...]and
respectability based on the day to day living of Christian ideals (Hall 1979116). This was
based on the individuals awareness of their own weakness and inadequacy and the need
fo[...]as well as protected her natural
characteristics of delicacy, fragility and moral weakness from the o[...]the 17805 attacking slavery and the moral laxity of the
upper classes. The French Revolution forced t[...]l revolutionaries but also by reforming
the state of England. Evangelism was important because it’s[...]also helped bridge the capitalist transformation of England from a
society of landed gentry to a society of emerging industrial bourgeoisie.

Balanced agains[...]Prince Regent, (later George IV) and the epitome of all dandies “Beau Brummell”,
Regency England was “an attempt on the part of the wastrel aristocracy and a contingent
of imitative commons to revive the elegance of Eighteenth Century fashionable life in a
moral atmosphere reminiscent of the Restoration” (Altick 197329; see also Sales 1994).

The morally bankrupt life of the Regency Dandies was an important target of Evangelist
critiques.

Evangelists along with oth[...]in the natural difference and complementary
roles of men and women which had been particularly linked to Evangelism had become
the common sense of the English middle class (19872149, this is reflected in Houghton
1957). Bradley notes that the adoption of the Evangelist model of behaviour by the
middle class “was very largely responsible for creating the cult of respectability and
conformity which charac[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (370)389

of the Evangelist critique can be seen quite strongly in the early years of the Nineteenth
Century. For example, in reading Longford’s biography of the Duke of Wellington we
read of his concern, embarrassment and despair of the activities of the Tory Government,
with numerous duels and scan[...]esire to be “useful” and shows the
influence of the writings of Hannah Moore. Various readers of Jane Austen have also
sought to claim Evangelist[...]making a more general, less Evangelistic critique of her times
(1994).

Davidoff and Hall use the example of the Queen Caroline affair to argue the strength of
the ideals of domestic virtues. In this case where King George IV, a noted womaniser and
leader of Regency Dandyism, sought to divorce his wife Queen Caroline. The defence of
Queen Caroline drew on the image of her as “dependant womanhood” needing to be
pr[...]ir demonstrates how power was justified in
terms of virtue emanating from the Evangelists domestic id[...]estic virtues. As Briggs has noted for the period of the Great Exhibition
(1851) “the Queen and Prince Consort were providing a golden model of respectability
and happy family life. The ideals of the court were in conformity with those of the middle
class rather that those of the older aristocracy” (Briggs 1963220).

Davidoff and Hall note that the doctrine of separate spheres as the key to domestic
ideology26 (1983, 1987). They argue that Evangelical notions of separate spheres and
duties of those within them, is translated into domesticity through the literature of advice

books, sermons and tracts which were comm[...]iastically read (1987:75,
149-192).

The doctrine of separate spheres referred to the division of society into public and private
life. Public life included the world of paid work, of politics and of men. Private life was
the world of women, children and servants and was concerned with the creation and
management of the home. Men of course could occupy the private sphere as well as the
public indeed one purpose of the private sphere was to nurture the man so he c[...]c sphere (Davidoff and Hall 1983).

The basic aim of domesticity was to create a home. A home as oppos[...]a
house is just a building, empty) was the centre of love and care. As the Registrar General
said in the introduction to the Census of 1851: “the possession of an entire house is
strongly desired by every Engl[...]ed circle round his
family and hearth - the shine of his sorrows, joys and meditations” (Davidoff 19[...]ause it kept “the
family” free from the taint of the market place. If commercial considerations we[...]iculated domestic values based on a close reading of middle class
moral tracts, diaries and let[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (371)[...]hen it would be difficult to maintain the facade of strict sexual
divisions and age and sex hierarchi[...]men’s role was to create the domestic happiness of the fireside through her
management of the home (based on strict order and regularity),[...]e
home provided a refuge from the turbulent world ofof their
families; moulding the minds of the young and improving the general level of manners in
society by their influence and duty ([...]was the man’s external role. The
Victorian view of manliness was based on qualities of physical courage, chivalric ideals,
virtuous fort[...]the character as being “the noblest
possession of man, constituting rank in itself, an estate in ge[...](1908:449). Later he notes “You
may admire men of intellect, but something more is necessary before[...]lness, integrity and goodness... form the essence
of manly character” (19082452).

Vance, in “The Sinews 0f the Spirit”, gives a comprehensive discussion of the qualities of
physical manliness, chivalry and moral manliness that form the Victorian quality of
manliness. There was a long tradition of physical exercise in the fresh air. This took the
form of various organised activities that occurred across[...]the early
Nineteenth Century often roused the ire of respectable public opinion. The Evangelicals
of course did not see such activities as “serious”, rather it was a waste of valuable time
and potentially morally dangerous ([...]lry again had a long history and was the preserve of the upper class who were
mercilessly poked fun at[...]uch as

Charles Kingsley. Thus it was the virtues of chivalry such as personal honour and public
duty that were extolled.

Moral manliness is representative of Christ and Christian beliefs in terms of manly
analogies (“fight the good fight with all your might”) and the emphasis of Christ’s
manliness. The Christian manliness bec[...]lar Christianity and is
associated with the works of Charles Kingsley and Thomas Hughes. Muscular

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (372)391

Christianity promoted the ideals of physical strength, courage and health, the importance
of family life, elements of duty and service to mankind and the study of the natural world
to discover the divine pattern of the moral universe (see Richards 1987:102-103).
M[...]served as the launching point for the development of the sporting

cult of the last decades of the Nineteenth Century where manliness became defined by
sporting ability and fair playing.

The concept of separate spheres, and Davidoff and Hall’s discussion of it in Family
Fortunes (1987), has been critiqued by Vickery (1993). Vickery’s main cement ofof whether the doctrine of separate spheres should be

taken as a given of the Nineteenth Century however she offers no evid[...]to spend time soaking up
the manners and methods of the lifestyle. Since this usually disbarred firs[...]neration had to be prepared for entrance
by means of an acceptable education and marriage into the eli[...]motion through the ranks depending upon a variety
of considerations include land ownership, state serv[...]198623).

Historians have pointed to the adoption of respectable values by the middle and lower
classe[...]ing
origins, although becoming less so at the end of the Nineteenth Century. The openness of
the upper elite was seen as one way of avoiding the consequences of the social disruption
of the Industrial Revolution. In fact, the Victorian[...]per classes (see Gunn 1988).
However, the reality of the openness of the upper class is a matter for historical[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (373)392

of the industrial spirit through gentrification”[...]ntly respectable.

In considering the application of notions of respectability based on studies of “Victorian
society’ it is important to consid[...]tralian
situation. Firstly, studies such as those of Davidoff which have been drawn on heavily in
this[...]England, yet the squatters came from other parts of the United
Kingdom, especially Scotland as well as some sprinklings of the Irish. There was also the
“continental” i[...]is

likely to be some variation in the specifics of behaviour especially in the context of
“Colonial Society”.

The continual flow of cultural information from the United Kingdom in the form of
letters and newspapers served to transmit the mores of respectability. Atkinson has
sketched the postal[...]1829 and 1847
(Atkinson 1979A). He saw the growth of the postal service as being one of the overall
factors in the growth of the squatting economy. Importantly the mail inclu[...]s were sent
inland from Sydney with about a third of these being from overseas (1979Az22). One also
must consider that the velocity of the flow of information increased over time with the
introduction of faster ships”, the telegraph, the Suez route to[...]ch as the railway and telegraph.

The development of the advice book in the Nineteenth Century provided another source
of information on fashion and domesticity. Architectural historians have pointed to the
role of advice books as sources for the design of various buildings (Broadbent 1976;
Morris 1995).[...]chitectural blueprints,
they were linked to a set of Victorian values that the architecture embodied.[...]hey were important vehicles for the dissemination of aesthetic attitudes”
(1976:65). Interestingly B[...]sie, built as a retreat from the city in the face of the difficulties of his work as a
typical example of domesticity. While Broadbent focuses on the source of the aesthetic

for the building and its setting, at heart is the domestic value of the home as a retreat from
work.

In another example of the use of advice manuals Mary Turner Shaw details the use of
Robert Kerr’s The Gentleman’s House. . .by he[...]ad at Wooriwyrite in 1885 despite the involvement of the architect Alexander
Hamilton (Shaw 1969: 146-[...]to 80 days. More importantly was the introduction of the “packet” type service with
ships leaving[...]72.

29 Based on the annotations in Shaw’s copy of Kerr.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (374)Finally there was the continual flow of immigrants to Australia not to mention the
cyclical transmission of Government officials (notably the Governors - the head of
society). Finally there are the tourists both tho[...]e” visiting Australia. The most notable example of the latter being the
Duke of Edinburgh. It is in the transmission of culture in person that the subtleties of
respectability and gentility are transmitted. Actors in the model society of “home” can

pass on and critique the performances of actors in Australia, indeed critiques of
Australian manners is a familiar literary form.[...]ion, this
was quickly demonstrated by the refusal of the Marines to guard the convicts at Port
Jackson! Moreover with the pardoning of convicts and the expiration of convict
sentences, the simple two-caste society ([...]oped into a complex society
where the basic lines of division were convict/free but where there were degrees on the
convict stain and divisions of rank within the free. Naturally the success of the convict
entrepreneurs posed a particular problem. As Hirst notes “by the end of Macquarie’s
govemorship the ex-convicts had earned well over half the wealth of the colony and were
masters of the same proportion of the convicts” (Hirst 1983:81). The wealth of the
convict entrepreneurs placed them often on a[...]from good society. John Hirst comments
“ if the officers and the free settlers had possessed all the qualities of the traditional
English gentleman, the wealthy ex[...]ient.
It was notorious that in the early days the officers had made their fortune by trading in "
thr[...]. Connell and Irving (1980) discuss
the formation of a colonial gentry which emerges in the period 181[...]clusives or gentry ran through the upper
echelons of society in NSW and caused considerable social and[...]business men
in The Rocks. She notes the signing of petitions by Rocks people in 1819 and 1821 where[...]l that they did not take on the distinctive
codes of a "genteel" moral and cultural behaviour adopted[...]ed by
the emergent middle class in England. Ideas of intemalised self- control and
an self- improvement, fervent Evangelical Protestantism, the romantic view
of Nature, the separation of work and home and the shunning of all alcohol

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (375)all remained absent from the lives of the long-settled, property owning
emancipists of the Rocks. They defined their respectability not by indicators
ofof regency morality rather than the Victorian model of behaviour
(1997:229-223).

From this we can see the thread of respectability running through at least the upper[...]cquired.

In Port Phillip in the “golden age” of the 18303 to the 18405 good society formed a gent[...]ntry. According to de Serville this
excluded most of the squatters who were in any case located inland from Melbourne.
Later of course, the excluded class, the squattocracy, ros[...]thy but not respectable.

David Goodman’s study of the Victorian goldfields in the 18505 notes that one of the key
features of the male society on the goldfields was the freed[...]east the articulate diggers) from the constraints of a structured society and from domestic
constraints and responsibility”. Goodman paints a picture of a society in Victoria where
the effects of gold were criticized in terms of the domestic ideology; men saw themselves
and their families’ happiness in terms of movement to the goldfields and speculation that[...]ake a fortune. Women saw that it would take a lot of gold to compensate for
the loss of domestic happiness (Goodman 1994: 1 5 1). It is clear from Goodman’s

discussion that the cult of domesticity was strongly entrenched in Australian[...]eformers and moralists began to work on the ideal of
masculinity as freedom and push it (back?) toward[...]oodman
1984: 149-178). In this dialogue the seeds of the selection movement and the so-called
“yeoma[...]c ideal as yeoman farmers we can see the workings of
respectability on both the squatters and the sele[...]a was measured by adherence or otherwise
to a set of values and standards developed in the period from[...]to the 1890S
called “Victorian Values”. Chief of these was the cult of domesticity. “Victorian Values”

30 This is a[...]atting period drawing on Ward’s classic
history of bush life The Australian Legend (Ferry 1999). How[...]d or maintained the domestic ideal from the start of their squatting.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (376)[...]rom the United Kingdom and
reinforced by the flow of information in the form of letters, newspapers, journals and
advice guides f[...]ed in the respectable person and ensured a degree of conformity between
“home” and the “colony”. It should be noted that in this period the speed of information
flow from home to the colonies deceased dramatically with the introduction of “packet
service to England, then steam ship ser[...]and. The information flow was linked to the sale of material
culture, such as ceramic dining s[...]
Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (377)APPENDIX THREE: THE

ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE AT

LANYON AND QUEANBEYAN

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (378)A considerable amount of emphasis in the historical discourse on Lanyon ha[...]trate”. This stems from the regular
appearances of his assigned convicts at the Queanbeyan Magistrates Court between 1837
and 1840. Wright was also accused of inspecting convicts' backs after flogging and of
mismanagement of his convicts. This evidence has been used by Blair and Claoue-Long
(1993a & b) to construct a view of Lanyon as a landscape ofof
Wright’s status in society can be glimpsed.

Wright was one of the earliest people calling for the establishment of a local court,
complaining to the Colonial Secret[...]835 that he had had to travel 520 miles
in search of a Magistrate to whom he could lay a complaint against one of his servants.
Justice in the region was administrated by military officers acting as mounted police who
travelled the[...]Secretary appointed Captain Alured Tasker
Faunce of the 4th (Kings Own) Regiment to the position of Police Magistrate at
Queanbeyan. Faunce, who was[...]27-28). From the start he was faced with
the lack of proper facilities (such as a court house and jail), convict officials and the need
to visit Sydney to settle th[...]ters affair.

These matters created difficulties of the administration of j ustice with prisoners escaping,
corrupt police[...]om Faunce’s supposed laxity towards his convict
officials.

Wright, who had been appointed Justice of the Peace in 1835, was one of those
dissatisfied with the system. So was Teren[...]other Dr James Murray. T.A.
Murray was the leader of the “squatters” in the area and was, like Wri[...]resulting in an inquiry later that year. The tone
of the complaint was similar to that in the Sydney G[...]nd Claoue-Long do, that it was “Wright’s lack of control
over his convicts, his repeated resort to official floggings, and the number of convicts
who ran away from Lanyon” that provoked an official inquiry into policing in the
distri[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (379)[...]lmers
took part either as witnesses or supporters of either side. This reflects their use of
emigrant labour rather than convict, which meant[...]ell did occasionally appear in court. Their lack

of involvement may also reflect their social and political distance as members of the
colonial “gentry”.

One of the complaints was that punishment was often remitted or lessened through the
corruption of the ex-convict minor officials (eg it was reported that a blanket was pl[...]It is in this context that Wright’s inspection of the backs of
convicts recently punished must be seen. It is no[...]was a regular practice, yet the Deposition books of the
Queanbeyan Bench of Magistrates suggests that there was only one case where this was
done. This was the case of Phillip Lee, who had been up on charges of not working and
was sentenced to 25 lashes on the[...],
I have the honour to report for the information of His Excellency the
Governor that it has appears t[...]rip and show their backs in order
that the extent of laceration might be ascertained, and to request t[...]annot give a general authority for the withdrawal of convict
servants in such cases but as the practic[...]ghly disgusting
and improper, I shall take notice of particular case which (shall?) be
brought to me.”

(State Records of NSW 40/939)

Shortly after Murray and Wrig[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (380)[...]ting Faunce, was not proved largely

because most of the convicts had escaped from Police custody, whi[...]ement:

“he was acquainted with Mr Wrights mode of managing his convicts
and there was only one poin[...]iffer in
opinion, which point was the examination of the backs of his servants
after receiving corporal punishment of which he (Captain Faunce)
disapproved. Mr Wright[...]nce had not been
properly executed.”

(Archives Office of NSW)

In undertaking this inspection, which it appears as a Justice of the Peace Wright was
entitled to do, Wright trans[...]o witness them” (Hirst 1983260). In the context of Wright’s social position
as Assignee or Master,[...]ng for the prisoner as well. It was almost a case of double
jeopardy - a second punishment after the first. Here it is worth considering Dening’s
discussion of the case of William Bligh another notorious flogger (1993). Dening
comments that other Captain’s imposition of discipline was a mutual engagement of the
punisher and the punished, whereas Bligh’s punishment, although lesser in numbers of
lashes given than most British Captains in the Pa[...]ed as just and in others it was not, irrespective of the
actual number of lashes. With Wright, the inspection of the back was humiliating to the
convict and that[...]a very public statement about the administration of justice in Queanbeyan (ie he
is attacking Faunce’s position especially in the context of the published allegations
against Faunce).

Wrigh[...]magistrate and justice was physically applied by
officers of the court. The system disassociated the Assignee from the administration of
justice. Wright by inspecting the backs re-entered the scheme of things at an
inappropriate point by becomi[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (381)[...]Respectable people avoided the
physical realities of flogging (see Hirst 1983260). He might have been smarter to get the
doctor (although the absence of both the doctor and Police Magistrate in supervising
floggings was one of the complaints) or T. A. Murray, in his role as Justice of the Peace,
to inspect backs for him.

Thus, Wrigh[...]per practice rather than as a tyrant. Examination of the
Bench ofof disobedient convicts Wright seems entirely typica[...]t a year had passed between Wright’s inspection of Lees back and
the Faunce complaint. Was Faunce mo[...]nd Wright
were concerned about his administration of justice?

Wright is revealed by this incident to be a person of obvious social status (otherwise he
would not have been a Justice of the Peace) but whose respectability might be seen[...]as an

understatement, however Mowle was writing of a period eight years later and he was not a Justice of the
Peace in I840.

TXT

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (382)[...]A thesis submitted in fulfilment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy

Prehistoric and Historic Archaeology
University of Sydney
December 1999

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (383)[...]thesis has taken over six years during which much of my
work has been undertaken on weekends and in da[...]Office, has encouraged me throughout the duration of my work by reading and
discussing my work. Sam Mc[...]n a good and
supportive friend in the last throes of the writing up.

My supervisors at the University of Sydney, Judy Birmingham, Roland Fletcher
(prehist[...]ance. Special thanks for services beyond the call of
duty go to Dr Aedeen Cremin and Dr Sarah Colley who read most of the second draft
and were extremely helpful in ma[...]nd Sarah had been very encouraging and supportive
of my work as well as helping with my caffeine addic[...]hanks to my colleagues and fellow students at the University of Sydney: Steph
Moser, Pim Alison, Tracy Ireland, P[...]Carlyle Greenwall Bequest to support my work. The
University kindly allowed me to use an airless, windowless o[...]Meg Stuart, assisted with constructing a database of
conditional purchase records and bought me[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (384)[...]the de Salis diaries held
at the National Library of Australia. I would like to thank the staff ofthe manuscripts
section of the ational Library of Australia for their assistance and for installing[...]rts they have collected on Lanyon.

In the course of my research I have been fortunate to receive the assistance of the
following people: Terry Kass, Grace Karskans,[...]Nigel Prickett, Neville Ritchie, and Mark Brown. Of
course, Skerrick was her usual helpful self and provided hours of diversion.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (385)[...]ies the cultural landscape concept to the history of squatting (sheep
and cattle fanning on Crown Land outside the limits of location) in South Eastern
Australia to revisit the question of squatting and the land question in Australia. Using
the techniques of historical archaeology as applied to cultural lan[...]s and the landscape.

After reviewing the history of the cultural landscape concept, the thesis proceeds
along two lines of inquiry. Firstly, it discusses the history of squatting at the broad
level seeking to understan[...]cted until 1911). Lanyon is studied as an example of pioneering and
establishing squatting runs. Cuppacumbalong is studies as an example of maintaining
the squatting run over a period of time against broad processes such as economic
flu[...]d to late 1800s selection movement.

The overview of the history of squatting (Chapters 3 & 4) argues that while the main
driving force of squatting was the economics of the wool industry which in collision
with the Colonial Government's land policy produced the phenomena of wholesale
illegal occupation of Crown Land across much of South-Eastern Australia. The
settlement pattern created was driven by the occupation of grassy plains suitable for
sheep farming. However[...]s structures and landscapes that were expressions of their
respectability. This respectability aided them in their struggle for security and
conversion of squatting runs into secure leasehold. This securi[...]ate to State but shared a general idealistic view of the
economies of small farming and ignorance of the environment.

Selection pitted the squatter and selector in a conflict to attain the same ideals of
respectability and domesticity often on the same piece of land. This explains the
often-ambiguous attitude[...]seeking accommodation with selectors. The nature of the conflict between
squatter and selector was me[...]s and regulations and
this gives rise to the form of the cultural landscape in many areas.

Research into Lanyon resulted in a substantial review of the established view of
Lanyon as a landscape of "captive labour" to one where evidence of coercion in the
landscape does not exist. The owner of Lanyon at the time James Wright is shown to
have[...]self on his squatting run at Cuppacumbalong (part of the Lanyon
estate).

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (386)[...]to the de Salis family in 1855. Detailed analysis
of the squatter/selector conflict is undertaken using the Conditional purchase records,
the diary of George de Salis and the landscape itself. This shows how the patriarch of
the family, the Hon Leopold Fane de Salis (MLC), husbanded his estate to create a
freehold estate out of the squatting run. This was done by a mixture of using family
and dummies to select important areas of the estate (the flats) which gave the family
control of the most economically valuable parts of the land. From this base, de Salis
was able to "q[...]Leopold de Salis operated through the provisions of the various Crown Land Acts
(which he as an MP wa[...]ed to
"improve" the land. This involved erections of residences (huts), fencing and clearing.
From the conditional purchase records, it is clear that the bulk of the improvements
went into ring barking and clearing the land. Thus the creation of squatting landscape
in this case was a complex interaction of the desires of the de Salis's to maintain their
estate, the desires of selectors to create small fanns, the Lands Acts a[...]oth the broad process that shaped the development of squatting and the individual
responses to the pro[...]om historical
cliches and to paint a rich picture of Australian history.
Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (387)[...]IV

TABLE OF CONTE T[...]O 1850: PIO EERI G
D THE ESTABLISHME T OF THE SQUATTOCRACY[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (388)[...]VB

Introduction of sheep to Australia 39[...]39
Development of the Australian wool industry 41

Expansion to the limits of location 42
West of the Blue Mountains[...]45
The Limits of Location 46

The Squatting Occupation of South-Eastern Australia 48
The Monaro[...]55
Settlement of Victoria 57
The sanctioning of squatting 61

The 1[...]62
The Depression of 1841 62
The[...]pps 65
The Consolidation of squatting 68

Who wer[...]115
The success or otherwise of selection 119

The Pa[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (389)[...]Vlll

The 1890s Depression and the end of squatting 129

Conclusion[...]132

Choice of the study area 133
Suitability of the study area 134
Overview of runs in the area[...]d Landscape 173

A landscape of captive labour?[...]184
Patterns of spatial organisation[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (390)[...]194
Brief overview of runs held by de Salis 195
Loss of the estate[...]207
Patterns of Spatial Organisation[...]212
The village of Tharwa[...]228
Analysis of Conditional Purchase Series[...]270

Catchment 5: the Long Gully, south of Murrumbidgee 272

Ca[...]274

Catchment 7: Catchments West of the Murrumbidgee 277

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (391)[...]280

Catchment 9: East Side of the Gudgenby River and aas River. 282[...]298
The Treachery of the Campbells[...]309

CHAPTER 9: CO CLUSIO -THE LAND OF THE GOLDE FLEECE 314

Intro[...]354

APPE DlX Two: RESPECTABILITY A D THE C LT OF DOMESTICITY 385

APPENDIX THREE: THE ADMI ISTRATIO OF JUSTICE AT LA 0 A D
QUEA BEYA[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (392)[...]ains are a distinguishing feature in the interior of New South
Wales... The silence and solitud[...]enable anyone to form a proper conception of them; no traces of the
works of man are here to be met with, except perhaps the ashes of a fire
on the banks of some river. ...nothing meets the eye of the traveller, with
the exception of a few solitary Emus, to enliven the monotony of the
dreary expanse. From the contemplation of this vacancy and solitude the
mind recoils[...]and enlivened by the presence and industry of civilised man."[...]amilies. These people, termed "squatters" because of their method of
land holding2 , formed the first wave of post-convict settlement beyond the
Cumberland Pla[...]icence reluctantly issued by the Crown, held
most of South-Eastern Australia. No doubt this form of title was intended to act in the
normal legal sense of giving a non-exclusive permission to occupy Crown[...]g runs 3 could be bought and sold.

In the decade of the 1840s, the squatters vigorously campaigned to[...]s on the land. This point marked the entrenchment of the squatters in the
physical, political and soci[...]to settle.
Squatting runs physically took up much of the landscape of South-Eastern Australia.
The squatters were also[...]for electors, which disenfranchised the majority of the population. In social circles,
the squatters[...]he squatters occupied the land without pemlission of the Crown, the presumed owner.
3 In this t[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (393)[...]3

Following the gold rushes of the early 1850s, the land question emerged as one of the
major political and social issues in Australia. The basic problem was that the increase
of population in Australia caused by a huge immigration of gold diggers raised the
question of where they might settle once the gold fields decl[...]squatter's holdings and encourage
the settlement of small fanners on the land to create a class of "yeoman farmers".
These small farmers were known as selectors and held land on a form of time
payment from the Crown. Free Selection was t[...]ere a political
power in the Legislative Councils of Parliament and had by this time become a de
facto[...]sphere where, through Parliament, representatives of each view argued
over the various pieces of land legislation and their administration. The se[...]legal and financial power
and considerable powers of tenacity, to try to create or maintain farms and landed
estates. In the process, many of the squatter's runs became freehold lands althoug[...]ters. Matters were not helped by the introduction of the
rabbit from the 1860s, massive and prolonged[...]in the marginal areas in the semi-arid west,
much of which is still held on lease.

The position of the squatters as pioneers was celebrated in vario[...]s Franklin and
Steele Rudd all explore dimensions of squatting and selecting.

It is with Stephen Roberts's work that serious historical discussion of squatting
begins. A History ofLand Settlement in[...]ng Age in Australia (1935) which was an outgrowth of this
earlier research, presented a romanticised view of squatting (cited as Roberts 1968 &
1974 respectiv[...]ent
studies as the first serious historical study of squatting. Billis and Kenyon wrote a
more romanticised history of squatting in Victoria with Pastures New (1930) and
produced a summary history of squatting runs and squatters for Victoria in Past[...]b). As well, Phillip Brown began his
lengthy task of publishing all the correspondence from the[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (394)[...]4

Beginning in the 1950s a number of studies of squatting and related subjects began to
be published. Most notable was Margaret KiddIe's Men of Yesterday (1962) a social
history of Western District squatters to whom KiddIe was rel[...]s a decided
move away from the simple biographies of squatters and squatting families such as
were pub[...]urray
(1968). KiddIe's work on the social history of squatting was never explicitly followed
up, but s[...]ion in Bathurst (1993).

Studies on the economics of the wool industry stimulated by Noel Butlin's wor[...]here was
considerable discussion on the economics of the wool industry4 (rather than squatting)
by aut[...]ll Ker (1961, 1962).
However with the publication of Abbott's The Pastoral Age in 1971 debate and
rese[...]much under-rated research theme was the question of land utilisation and
government policy, which alt[...]Powell and Hancock established the research theme of
human impact on the environment, now popular with[...]all it can be said that although no local history of South-Eastern Australia
(outside the original 19 counties of New South Wales) can be said to be complete
without a mention of squatting, selecting and the land debate, these t[...]history more to their taste. This
means that many of the new modes of historical discourse have not been applied to
the history of squatting. That history has therefore remained co[...]ich seem rather to have stalled.

Yet, the ghosts of squatting stalk the fields of contemporary Australian society. When
politicians[...]ime Minister) and Alexander Downer
(former Leader of the Opposition) are dismissed as "squatters", it[...]the squatter speaks for privilege and the status of a ruling class.

4 There was also a line of research into the origins of the merino and sheep in general.

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (395)[...]es about Aboriginal land rights there is the echo of
previous attempts to change the nature of pastoral holdings to reduce the squatters
power. Furthermore the current system of rural land tenure emerged from the land
debates of the nineteenth century.

T AKI GAL DSCAPE[...]is
aims to understand:

• the process of firstly transforming the Aboriginal cultural land[...]ting landscape.

• the transformation of the squatter into the squattocracy.

•[...]out on the
landscape.

In the process of undertaking this study, it is also hoped to reunite some ofthe
separate strands of squatting research. Land policy for example was not just some
abstract notion. It was underpinned by notions of social and economic status that had
a direct interaction with the landscape of South-Eastern Australia. The policy can be
unders[...]be related back to the land debates and contexts of social and
economic status.

While some of the information used in this thesis, particularly[...]on a broad stage where they are seen in a variety
of roles: as pioneering heroes, as rampant capitalis[...]both the "Whig view" and the "Black Armband view" of the past to flourish.

On the other hand landscap[...]rly well situated in social and economic contexts of
the time. Discussions of particular landscapes often ignore the context in[...]. In particular, there seems little understanding of how land legislation acted to
control the shape of a landscape and of the contexts in which the legislation was
developed and applied. The lack of context in studies of individual landscapes allows

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (396)[...]aking a landscape approach forces the examination of abstract notions such as
"squatters as rampant capitalists" in the context of actual physical evidence, the
cultural landscapes[...]a broader context for a
particular manifestation of squatting behaviour such as taking up a piece of land rather
than focus on an individual squatter's behaviour.

The potential of landscape research for the study of squatting was noted in the first
major statement[...]evealed in settlement
pattern is a promising area of study" (1983: 12). Despite this call historical
a[...]g in Australia has been limited to the early work
of Connah in New England (1977, 1983 and Connah et a[...]house on Holowiliena Station (1993).
This paucity of work is attributable to the disciplinary focus on[...]on landscape it should be noted that the research of
Joe Powell, a historical geographer with an obvio[...]kground, is
important for documenting the working of the land laws in Victoria (1970, 1973). His
work was followed by that of Ray Wright on the workings of the Victoria Lands
Department (1989). Both Powell and Wright focus on the workings of the land laws
and the individuals involved and de[...]ortant in providing an understanding the workings of the land law in
Victoria and it is puzzling that[...]squatting this thesis is not only
addressing one of the oldest research themes in the study of Australia's past, but it is
also trying to develo[...]entary evidence. This does not mean that one line of evidence is to have
priority over another but that all lines of evidence are to be considered.

The approach to t[...]approach" which aims to look at material aspects
of squatting as forming a cultural landscape (see Ch[...]pproach rather than the more traditional
approach of excavation is that there seemed to be no compelli[...]uld be solved solely by excavation. The formation of a squatting run
and the development of architecture and spatial arrangements rela[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (397)[...]dence is abundantly available because large areas of South-Eastern
Australia remain as sheep and cattle runs retaining evidence of the squatting era. In
Western Victoria for example there are a number of runs that retain evidence of the
original squatting settlement and subsequent[...]y collide and
gives full reign to the exploration of research in many fields. The rationale for taking
this approach is to use the detailed study of the landscape to anchor the abstract
notions of squatting to overcome the problems with previous[...]es are used as an organising tool to set a series of
issues that the research in the thesis will addre[...]discussed below.

Pioneering

The general spirit of the histories written about squatting particularly of the early
squatters is of heroic times. "The brave pioneers hewing a farm out of the bush" myth.
The challenge in researching squa[...]inal
cultural landscape, which after various acts of dispersion was claimed as the squatter's
own. The study of AboriginaVsquatter relations has been the subject of a number of
historical studies including Milliss' magisterial[...]79). We are also fortunate in having the journals of George Augustus
Robinson, Protector of Aborigines in Victoria, in a published form which[...]S This claim is based on the authors experience of over fifteen years of archaeological fieldwork in
South-East[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (398)[...]considered decision that involved
considerations of the environment, economics, government policy, an[...]ally acknowledged). How long the
pioneering phase of squatting persisted and what effect on the landscape the
pioneering phase of settlement had, are two important questions to be developed.

Before the beginning of squatting expansion, fanning in South-Eastern Aus[...]. This suited both the need for
food and the mode of production - namely the use of convict labour. The expansion
into sheep and cattle grazing required a more dispersed fonn of settlement and either a
"free" workforce or a new fonn of relations between the convict and his overseer an[...]resumably, these changes also required a new fonn of settlement or
adaptation of existing settlement patterns in the landscape.

F[...]e established squattocracy is about the
processes of gaining and maintaining possession of land as well as gaining and
maintaining social status. This process is epitomised in the transfonnation of the
squatter (a word that even today remains slig[...]racy but also denies
that meaning by the coupling of squatter. 6

How did the squatters rise from very[...]Kenyon for example emphasised the good character of the squatters in tenns
reminiscent of Samuel Smiles's Self Help. Eamest Scott saw their rise as a natural
consequence of the absence of a land policy (1927). Roberts pointed to the irresistible
economic force of the successful wool industry which once having ga[...]nning Clark argued that squatting was the product of British emigrants who
aspired to the life of the landed Gentry and moved into the seemingly un[...]ll saw squatting as being driven by the economics of the pastoral interest but
that the actual settlem[...](1972)

61 am not sure whether this is an example of Australia's cultural cringe (true aristocr[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (399)[...]10

were much more focused on the details of the squatters and selectors and on the
question of the success or otherwise of selection.

In my view the answers already provid[...]tocracy and maintaining that position in the face of
selection was as much a social as an economic tra[...]e term
improvement was used to describe a raising of ones social and economic condition. In
other words, there was a link between the social and moral concept of improvement
and the material expression of improvement in the form of goods and landscapes.

The essential element in the establishment of squatters was respectability, which
allowed squat[...]there was now "improved land", populated by "men" of "good
character". The official argument for giving squatters some form of right to purchase
land was expressed in terms of the land being a force for social and moral
improvement. The squatting landscape was an integral part of this social
transformation, a point overlooked by[...]on political and
economic factors.

The evidence of respectability is expressed through adherence to the Victorian era cult
of domesticity. The material evidence for this is ob[...]spatial
scales. Notably, there is the expression of respectability through various etiquette
performances at social events. Manner of dress and speech are other signs of
respectability. These can be considered as occurring at a personal scale.

There is also the broader aspect of how a person lives their life, particularly their[...]In Mansfield Park Jane Austen paints the picture of a family
lead morally astray by the lack of a firm grip by the head of the household and this is
expressed in part throu[...]he living fence
was more than an inherited symbol of wealth status and enlightenment. Caleb Kirk
and other gentleman farmers firmly believed that the appearance of a farm fence
indicated the virtue of the farmer who constructed it" (1984:352). Thus,[...]nce was a symbol referring to the moral qualities of the owner. An unkempt fence
clearly reflected the moral qualities of the owner (see also the discussion in Davidoff
and Hall 1987:370-375).

Thus at the scale of the landscape, the moral values of respectability were felt to have
a physical expression in the homes and estates of people. An unkempt fence or
disorganised estate were symbols of the moral decline or lack of respectability in a
family or individual. Convers[...]rdered estate reflected the respectable
qualities of the owner as well as the owner's affluence.

The notion of improvement was another important value. "Improve[...]ddle Ages referring to the profitable cultivation of land. There
was a moral imperative to impr[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (400)[...]ebrated by Samuel Smile's "SelfHelp", a catalogue of the virtues of
improvement. Similarly, the notion of improvement was an important aspect of
landscape gardening particularly through the works of Capability Brown and later
Humphrey Repton. In the nineteenth century the notion of improvement covered the
landscapes of the upper class to the middle class and to the colonies, the rendering of
land more profitable by various works, to the notions of moral and spiritual
improvement.? In particular, Australia was often considered to be greatly in need of
improvement in all areas: spiritually, morally, a[...]l
culture was not considered important, the whole of Australia was considered ripe for
improvement, that is bringing the land into production, the creation of productive
estates as the quotation from James Atkinson at the start of this chapter expresses.
Again, there is a tie into the values of respectability as improvement encompasses the
values of utility, thrift, seriousness, enthusiasm, and so[...]I use the tenn husbandry to denote the management of an estate and
family. It includes the concept of improvement, for the duty of the head of a family
was to improve both the estate and his a[...]y has an appeal as a tenn denoting the management of an estate or fann
and a family. The squatter-squa[...]ough taking a
landscape approach to the husbandry of estates. A well husbanded estate was seen to
be a mark of one's social status. This material link between s[...]is important in understanding the transfonnation of the squatter to the
squattocracy and in the squattocracy's maintenance of their position in the face of
selection.

From the above discussion, the link b[...]uatting landscape and the moral
and social status of the squatter should be clear. Furthennore it was[...]eded to husband the run as well. Thus, the making of a
squatter was intertwined with the making of a squatting landscape.

Selecting

Ironically, respectability and related Victorian values of domesticity were also used to
conjure the vision of the yeoman fanner productively established on his[...]e on the
land and improve it as well. This vision of domesticity was also shared with the
squatter who[...]ction movement they have been
limited by the lack of access to the detailed records of selection, making detailed
study difficult. Selec[...]the records were established.
This thesis is one of the first to use these records although it seems[...]onditional Purchase Registers (a brief discussion of these
records is presented in the following chapter).

7 There was also the notion of "improvements" referring to the actual works that contributed to the
"improvement" of a piece of land.
8 As a reading of the many books on visits to colonial Austr[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (401)[...]Victoria, the Western
District has been the focus of Powell's detailed work, in NSW the Riverina has b[...]England (Ferry 1990, 1995, 1996). As
the majority of the historical work that discusses this issue has[...]ndscapes in detail to help understand the process of selection.
In particular the relative strategies of the selector and the squatter can be examined. In[...]imension missing from current historical accounts of selecting.

Co CLUSIO

This thesis revisits the theme of squatters and the land question in Australia. It[...]o re-examine squatting but to use the perspective of historical archaeology to
analyse squatting lands[...]hasis in the
analysis is on the use and interplay of historical and landscape data to understand the
p[...]his, it is intended to build up the understanding of the context in which
individual case studies illu[...]research themes can be developed.

The structure of the thesis is as follows. To begin with, the concept of cultural
landscapes and landscape archaeology are[...]ers looking at squatting on the very broad canvas of South-Eastern
Australia follow this. These chapte[...]ed in creating
squatting landscape in the context of the themes, developing regional trends and
patter[...]anding the
processes that underpin the production of cultural landscapes is important to provide
the context for understanding the individual manifestation of a squatting landscape.

There follow three chapte[...]e studies at a local level give
specific examples of the development of squatting landscapes and show how the
broader tre[...]d the landscape.

Lanyon is studied as an example of a pioneering squatting run demonstrating in the
landscape the process of pioneering settlement and the relations be[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (402)[...]13

and his workers. James Wright, the owner of Lanyon is of interest because he was not
really a successful s[...]ape.

Finally, the work is concluded by a summary of the three research themes and reviews
the[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (403)[...]15

I TROD CTIO

In the study of landscapes, the concept of "cultural landscapes" is the primary
proposition[...]scape is held to
be created or formed by a number of human induced processes interacting over time
wit[...]ullied by human interaction. However, the concept of cultural
landscapes has not been a static intelle[...]. Therefore it is
important to review the concept of cultural landscapes and the methodology for
"read[...]gical landscape as a background to the main focus of this
thesis.

The first and most daunting task is[...]on "culture"). Trying to review the whole corpus of
literature would be the work of a lifetime. This review is therefore going to tak[...]esis. Due to space considerations, the first part of the review is presented as
Appendix One. Appendix[...]came
from and how it developed.

The second part of the review is presented in this Chapter and begins with a brief
review of the use of the landscape concept in archaeology concluding with a
discussion of some specific examples from historical archaeology. This is followed by
a review of the use of the cultural landscape concept in Australia. Fina[...]The review is focused on the disciplinary field of geography, simply because of its
concern with space and landscape. That it cou[...]with Ruskin's
Modern Painters indicates something of the diversity of the topic and the difficulty in
deciding what is[...]close ties across the two disciplines; thus many of the
developments in geographical techniques and u[...]worked in both areas, while the ''New
Geography" of the 1960s was enthusiastically embraced by archae[...]raphy and
archaeology therefore share a tradition of common interest in cultural landscapes.

GEOGRAP[...]RAL LA DSCAPE

There has been a long tradition of archaeological involvement in cultural landscape
studies and geography. In British archaeology, the work of Cyril Fox is considered
important in establishing the study of settlement patterns, although his work was
really a series of distribution maps tracing various items of material culture across the
landscape. In his major work on the archaeology of the Cambridge region, these maps
were clas[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (404)[...]16

in terms of culture groups. By comparing the evidence Fox was able to argue that the
geological structure of the ambridge region was the dominant factor in de[...]settlement. Fox saw that there were primary areas of settlement, which he
considered had been continually settled since the eolithic, and secondary areas of
settlement which were dependent on a certain level of civilisation being reached
(1923:313-314). Fox we[...]ofBritain
(1932) which Carl Sauer saw as a model of geographical writing (Williams, 1983 :9-
10)

Gra[...]on the Mesolithic in Britain showed the influence of Fox's
work. Clark defined archaeology as "the study of past distribution of culture-traits in
time and space, and of the factors governing their distribution" {l933).Clark's thesis
used a mixture of typological analysis and distribution maps (Smith[...]ner that is similar to the morphological analysis of cultural landscapes advocated
by Sauer. Clark's review of Fox's Personality ofBritain was to some extent qu[...](Clark 1933).

The other important work was that of Willey in the Viru valley, Peru. Although
conceiv[...]he
research has been associated with Willey's use of the concept of settlement pattern in
archaeology (e.g.Trigger 19[...]ir arrangement, and to the nature and disposition of other buildings
pertaining to community life. These settlements reflect the natural environment, the
level of technology on which the builders operated, and the various institutions of
social interaction and control, which the culture[...]starting point for the functional interpretation of archaeological cultures"
(1953: 1).

In many ways[...]s work share similar assumptions about the nature of
culture and its relationship with the environment. Willey's work also fits into the
methodology of Cultural Geography of the time using archaeological rather than
geographical terms. For example, the work of Kniffen on Louisiana house types is
very similar[...]adopted the
morphological approach as well. Part of the similarity is explained by the fact that
both[...]and geography drew on the anthropological theory of the time for
their conceptions of culture. 0 doubt this is why Carl Sauer was so ea[...]rn studies while sometimes operating on the scale of
landscape analysis, are not necessarily landscape[...]se. Trigger, for example,
identified three levels of settlement analysis; the individual structure, the settlement
and settlement distributions, of which only the final level involved the landscape[...]nted as being "natural". In contrast, the concept of

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (405)[...]andscape sees the landscape as a patterned result of cultural process
interacting in some way with the natural elements in the landscape.

With the development of the ' ew Archaeology" in the 1960s, archaeologists began
to discard their previous approaches in favour of a positivist or processual approach
based on a sc[...]locational
analysis typified by Renfrew's review of Locational Analysis in Human Geography
and Models[...]70s there was speculation that
the second edition of Locational Analysis might revolutionise archaeolo[...]tivist position (Green and Haselgrove 1978).

One of the archaeological responses to the new locational geography was to adopt
some of its methodologies. One of the offspring was site catchment analysis. Devise[...]time from the site. Although the concept is full
of assumptions, it at least provides a basis for com[...]ndscape. In one sense, a site catchment is a form of cultural landscape although the
degree to which i[...]ing the late 1960s there was an increasing number of settlement pattern studies,
although there was so[...]establish 'settlement archaeology" as a sub-field of archaeology (Chang, 1968; Rouse
1967; Trigger 1967). Settlement pattern studies followed Willey's concept of
settlement pattern and its relationship with the landscape. What did change was the
adoption of the general systems approach, an increased integration of ecological and
environmental data and models and the use of computer based statistics and models
(often called cultural ecology). The most perceptive of these studies is Flannery's
edited volume The Early Mesoamerican Village (1976) in which the methods of
analysis are carefully discussed and evaluated. As a consequence of the need for
environmental data, more interdiscip[...]ronically,
this was lead by Ian Hodder, co-author of a very positivist work Spatial Analysis in
Archae[...]usly influenced by the new
geography. In a series of books and papers Hodder and his students, notably[...]oaches to archaeology generally through the field of cultural studies. This
produced a predictable clash between the mainly American based supporters of

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (406)[...]ective, this debate did not focus on the
question of landscape but on other issues. This was because u[...]pt was not central to archaeology. A good example of the contrast in
focus between human geography and[...]plines there seems to have been little in the way
of cross fertilisation between them.

This view is b[...]y. The irony is that the only detailed discussion of Marxist/Post-modemist
approaches in geography occ[...]aeology (long
considered the theoretical dinosaur of archaeology) rather than in Ian Hodder's
chapter[...]nary ofArchaeology
(Bahn 1992) is "the collection of landforms particular to a region at a particular[...]distinct
erosional or depositional process or set of processes". There is no listing for cultural
landscape. Clearly the "authorised" version of landscape sees landscape purely in a
geomorphological sense with no involvement of humans at all. Human activity occurs
on landscape[...]ive text.

The general problem seems to be a lack of interest in what is being said on the other
side of the disciplinary fence. Yet human geography and a[...]e post-modern challenge, to move to richer
levels of meanings and interpretations and to deal with the legacy of positivism. But
whereas with the positivist movement of the 1960s at least the archaeologists were
readin[...]ee Gamble 1987:228-229). There is little evidence of a dialogue on areas of mutual
interest. It is to be regretted that Wagne[...]cultural geographers
focus on the social creation of landscapes of more relevance.

A specific field of archaeology called Landscape Archaeology has emer[...]d to be another name for the archaeological study of settlement
patterns with little attempt to go beyond description and limited conceptualisation of
the concept oflandscape (e.g.the papers in Reeves[...]en seen by
reviewers as the most advanced example of landscape archaeology (1995). It is

9[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (407)[...]inly a text that reports on a great project, that of understanding the forces that
shaped the Biferno Valley over time. Barker adopted the research orientation of
Braudel's "La Mediterranee... " and the other Ann[...]icial and sometimes seem at odds with
Barkers aim of integrating and understanding. The last 500 years[...]and its
evolution" is exactly the same splitting of the natural and cultural that occurs in most
trad[...]been occupied for 730,000 years yet the processes of human activity are discussed
in two pages, thin d[...]kdrop
providing constraints and opportunities and of course changing, but the emphasis is on
the settl[...]dialectical relations between human acts and acts of nature, made manifest in
the landscape" (Crumley[...]definition is "a heterogenous land area composed
of a cluster of interacting ecosystems that is repeated in simila[...]1986:8-11) and this seems to be the general usage of the term (see Naveh and
Liberman 1994 who actuall[...]g and
Tangway 1997).

The underlying principal is of course that of the "system" or system theory so beloved
of the processual archaeologists and geographers of the 1960s. By adopting this
approach, the landsca[...]ns included
(Ludwig et al. 1997 is a good example of this method). However the actual
involvement of humans, either individually or collectively, is masked by the use of
terms such as "culture" or "human impact" which act to cover up the actual details of
what is thought to have occurred and precludes a detailed understanding. These are, of
course, familiar and long standing criticisms of the systems approach, however
landscape ecologists seem curiously unaware of such criticisms. For example the
book by Naveh an[...]the papers in
Crumley (1994) seem much more aware of contemporary questions about "culture"
and "natur[...]for some fairly major lapses even if the critique of the ecological paradigm is
ignored as the authors apparently have not discovered one word of doubt about the applicability of the
srstems approach to humans.
I Assuming of course the authors had bothered to read an[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (408)[...]Crumley seems to see historical ecology as a way of charting the future course of
"global action" (1994:8) and yet adopts a methodo[...]approach is not particularly different from that of landscape
archaeology, as a comparison between Barker's work in the Biferno valley (1995) and
the work of Crumley and Marquardt (1987) in the Burgundian la[...]an approach to landscape analysis
and an analysis of the relationships between populations and the lan[...]thern England (1994). Tilley is well known as one
of the archaeologists arguing for a post-processual[...]d to some degree he
has an equivalent role to one of the new cultural geographers. Tilley is also occupying
similar intellectual territory with his rejection of positivist notions of space and spatial
analysis (1994:8-10). Tilley ar[...]ticular settings
for involvement and the creation of meanings" (1994:11).

Adopting the phenomenological approach of the "humanistic" geographers and
especially Relph's concept of place Tilley defines the concept of "locales" which are
"places created and known thr[...]1994: 18). Locales occur within a broader context of cultural and natural landscapes.
Tilley wants his usage of the term landscape to refer to "the physical and visual form
of the earth as an environment and as a setting in w[...]eated, reproduced and transformed. The appearance
of a landscape is something that is substantial and capable of being described in terms
of relief, topography... and so on" (1994:25). Tille[...]posed to natural features) "draw on the qualities of landscape to
create part of their significance for those who use them, and the perception of the
landscape itself may be fundamentally affected by the very situatedness of these
locales" (1994:26). "A landscape has ontolo[...]nts to the fundamental way naming, or the process of creating places, creates
both localities and landscapes. The act of naming (or place making) transforms the
physical[...]19). The individual can then draw on their stocks of knowledge to give
meaning, assurance and signific[...]As an aside, he also mentions that the experience of these places is unlikely to be
shared and experienced equally and the understanding and use of places can be
controlled and exploited in systems of domination (1994:27).

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (409)[...]21

Once places are named then the experience of living creates both individual and social
memorie[...]iliar place becomes bound up in their experiences of similar places.
Moving through a landscape is soc[...]g to a right way to do
things. An obvious example of this is Australian farm gate etiquette, although Tilley
uses the example of Gabbra camel herders. Movement through the landscape involves
drawing on memories of moving through locales and landscapes and applyin[...]After discussing de Certeau's (1984) discussion of the art of walking in which de
Certeau drew a detailed analo[...]peech, Tilley defines the path
as the inscription of the pedestrian speech act onto the landscape (1994:30). Ajourney
through a landscape on a path is one of constantly changing the tactile world. To
explain[...]ked about, recounted or inscribed. In the
process of moving, the landscape unfolds to the observer. Places are appreciated as
part of the moving to and away from. "If places are read[...]each other and through serial movement along axes of paths it follows that an art of
understanding of place movement and landscape must fundamentally be a narrative
involving a presencing of previous experiences in present contexts" (1994:3[...]Tilley is explicit about confining his perception of landscape to small-scale
"traditional landscapes" it seems on the basis of historical evidence that similar
processes of naming of locales and linking these with paths (is the social creation of
landscapes) occurs within capitalist societies as[...]m city). Relph decried placelessness as a product of capitalism but he did not
argue that there were no places in capitalist society.

Aspects of Tilley's approach to moving through the landscape[...]a ofthe city
and aims to encourage the production of exciting urban form. He developed a concept
calle[...]rough a town at a uniform speed, then the scenery of the town is often revealed in a
series ofjerks or[...]ool for investigating the three dimensional space of a landscape.

Tilley's musings on the Welsh lands[...]th views seem to have merit, it is also
a measure of the interest in Tilley's work that he shou[...]

Squatting Landscapes in South-Eastern Australia (1820-1895). [PhD Thesis] (410)[...]r cursed depending on your
view) with an increase of landscape studies based on Geographical Informati[...]rices and thus becoming cheaper to use.
For those of us who can remember the statistics boom in archae[...]publication, GIS threatens the same problem: lack of consideration of
the fundamental principals of the technique. It is a reliefto read Llobera's pa[...]e landscape approach as Tilley and uses the power of GIS to answer questions
relating to process in th[...]icular Llobera shows how GIS can look at
question of visibility of places and to places also a theme of Tilley's study. Although
a preliminary study, this is an important paper in demonstrating the potential of GIS in
landscape studies and the care with which[...]applied.

To conclude a rather brief run through of archaeological approaches to landscape, a
split i[...]ich sees gardens as landscapes, which in the case of
individuals, such as "Capability Brown" or Humphe[...]ing as others would
see gardens more in the scale of places within a landscape rather than as landscapes
themselves.

One of the most influential of the more recent archaeological studies of landscape has
been the work of Mark Leone (and his students) on the gardens and city of Annapolis,
U.S.A. (Leone 1987, 1988). Leone's wor[...]re he reviewed various approaches to
the question of recovering mind. Leone is enthusiastic about using materialist (or
Marxist) concepts of ideology and the methods of critical self-reflection to recover
mind. He particularly places this form of analysis in the arena of historical
archaeology as both the present and th[...]deologies.

Leone's later work undertaken as part of the Archaeology in Annapolis Project
developed th[...]case the garden, and society t